Outdoor Nebraska

PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY NEBRASKA GAME, FORESTATION AND PARKS COMMISSION Editor: Dick H. Schaffer Associate editor: William C. Blizzard Photographer-writer: Fred Gibbs Circulation: Emily Ehrlich Artist: Claremoni G. Pritchard MARCH, 1958 VoL 36, No. 3 25 cents per copy $1.75 for one year $3 for two years Send subscriptions to: Outdoor Nebraska, State Capitol Lincoln 9 NEBRASKA GAME COMMISSION Floyd Stone, Alliance, chairman Leon A. Sprague, Red Cloud, vice chairman Don F. Robertson, North Platte George Pinkerton, Beatrice Robert H. Hall, Omaha Keith Kreycik, Valentine DIRECTOR M. O. Steen DIVISION CHIEFS Eugene H. Baker, construction and engineering Glen R. Foster, fisheries Lloyd P. Vance, game Dick H. Schaffer, information and education Jack D. Strain, land management PROJECT AND ASSISTANT PROJECT LEADERS Orty Orr, fisheries (Lincoln) Phil Agee, game (Lincoln) Clarence Newton, land management (Lincoln) Malcolm D. Lindeman, operations (Lincoln) Frank Sleight, operations (Lincoln) Harvey Miller, waterfowl (Bassett) Bill Bailey, big game (Alliance) DISTRICT SUPERVISORS DISTRICT I (Alliance, phone 412) L. J. Cunningham, law enforcement Lem Hewitt, operations John Mathisen, game Keith Donoho, fisheries Robert L. Schick, land management DISTRICT II (Bassett, phone 334) John Harpham, law enforcement Lewis Klein, operations Jack Walstrom, game Bruce McCarraher, fisheries DISTRICT III (Norfolk, phone 2875) Robert Benson, law enforcement Richard Wickert, operations Gordon Heebner, game George Kidd, fisheries Harold Edwards, land management DISTRICT IV (North Platte, phone 4425-26) Samuel Grasmick, law enforcement Robert Thomas, fisheries Dale Bree, land management DISTRICT V (Lincoln, phone 5-2951) Bernard Patton, law enforcement Robert Reynolds, operations George Schildman, game Delvin M. Whiteley, land management RESEARCH BIOLOGISTS Max Hamilton, pheasants (Fairmont) Raymond L. Linder, pheasants (Fairmont) David K. Wetherbee, coturnix quail (Lincoln) AREA CONSERVATION OFFICERS Cecil Avey, 519 4th Street, Crawford, phone 228 Edsel Greving, Box 221, Rushville, phone 257 Jim McCole, Box 268, Gering, phone 837 L Raymond Frandsen (unassigned at present) Joe Ulrich, Box 1382, Bridgeport, phone 100 William J. Ahern, Box 1197, North Loup, phone 89 Jack Morgan, Box 603, Valentine, phone 504 Fred Salak, Box 254, O'Neill, phone 678 Dale Bruha, General Delivery, Albion, phone 356 Larry Iverson, Box 201, Hartington, phone 429 Gust J. Nun, 503 East 20th, South Sioux City, phone 4-3187 C. W. Shaffer, Box 202, Columbus, phone Locust 3-7032 V. B. Woodgate, Box 403, Fremont, phone PArk 1-5715 William F. Bonsall, Box 305, Alma, phone 154 H. Lee Bowers, Benkelman, phone 49R Loron Bunney, Box 675, Ogallala, phone 247 H. Burman Guyer, 1212 N. Washington, Lexington, phone Fairview 4-3208 Herman O. Schmidt, Jr., 1011 East Fourth, McCook, phone 992W Robert Ator, Box 141, Syracuse, phone 115 Carl E. Gettmann, 810 East 5th Street, Hastings, phone 2-4929 John D. Green, 720 West Avon Road, Lincoln, phone 8-1165 Norbert J. Kampsnider, 1521 West Charles, Grand Island, phone Dupont 2-7006 Roy E. Owen, Box 288, Crete, phone 446 Richard Wolkow, 701 South 22nd, Omaha, phone ATlantic 0718 IN THIS ISSUE: RETURN OF THE PRAIRIE GHOST Page 3 (William C. Blizzard) FISH HELP SCIENCE Page 6 HAWKS AND FALCONS OF NEBRASKA Page 8 (Henry E. Baumgarten) CAN FISH HEAR? Page 12 (David Gunston) KNOTS FOR NYLON Page 14 (William C. Blizzard) COURTSHIP Page 16 (Phil Agee) EXOTIC FISH Page 17 (Orty Orr) BEGINNING OF A NEW ERA Page 19 (M. O. Steen) WATERSHED FOR WILDLIFE Page 23 (Del Whiteley) MAIL CALL Page 24 OUTDOOR ELSEWHERE Page 25 NOTES ON NEBRASKA FAUNA (JACK RABBIT) Page 26 (Dick H. Schaffer) FISH I.Q Page 28

RETURN OF THE PRAIRIE GHOST

By William C. Blizzard, associate editor

LAST SPRING, a bunch of us were chatting in a Bassett hotel when one of our party spoke of his prowess as a college track star. We didn't mind, until his talk passed from pardonable pride to chest thumping. Then a grizzled wildlife technician nudged me with an elbow and leaned toward the boaster.

"I'll bet you 10 dollars," he said, "that you can't out-run a baby!"

The human guided missile had a red face as his hand shot to his pocketbook. "That's a silly thing to say, but I'll hold you to it. Lead me to your baby!"

The technician grinned. "Gladly. We have some work to do tomorrow in Garden County. We'll see then."

The next day we were riding the sandhills. The wildlife man halted us and pointed toward the ground. Hugging the soil was a tiny creature that appeared to be all eyes and legs.

"There's your baby," my friend said to the boastful sprinter. "Let's see you catch him."

The track man tried, but it was no contest. He succeeded only in eating dust from the flying feet of the baby antelope. But he grinned through the dust. "I still think I'm pretty good. No man could outrun an antelope."

He was 100 per cent correct. When that baby pronghorn, or kid, becomes a big buck he'll be capable of hitting 55 miles an hour. Loafing along at 30 or 40, he can travel long distances before stopping to catch his breath. He is perhaps the world's fastest mammal, possibly excluding the trained hunting cheetah.

It appears that pronghorn antelope ranged throughout Nebraska before the turn of the century. Travelers in 1834 reported them abundant near the mouth of the Platte River. Lt. G. K. Warren reported sighting many pronghorn in 1855 in the eastern portion of the sandhills. A MARCH, 1958 3   history of Lincoln describing conditions about 1860 reports bands of antelope ranging within the present city limits.

But as the white man moved west, the pronghorn declined. Keen vision and great speed were no match for the plow and the rifle. Thoughtless slaughter (there were even place names like Slaughter Gap) and poor conservation practices virtually wiped out the antelope in Nebraska. In a survey released in 1925, the United States Biological Service estimated there were only 187 antelope in the whole state. And 20 years later, other population estimates indicated that the fleet animal had become almost extinct in Nebraska.

Complete protection was instituted for the pronghorn in 1907. The natural increase was slow, and it was not until 1953 that a limited hunting season was allowed. That year 150 permits were issued for a part of Cheyenne County. Eighty-nine per cent of the permitees bagged an antelope. Limited seasons followed in 1954, '55, and '56.

By 1957, the pronghorn had increased to the point that the Game Commission boosted the number of permits to 1,060, with 73 per cent of the hunters successful during the three-day hunt. Aerial surveys in late summer had indicated there were about 3,600 antelope in Nebraska.

Most Nebraska pronghorns are confined to the western part of the state. Recognizing the vast sandhills area to the east as an ideal habitat, too, for the pronghorn, the Game Commission launched a release program designed to restore antelope to that region. This project is to be handled with the co-operation and at the request of landowners.

It began in late January of this year with the release of 23 does and 13 bucks on the Clyde Blake ranch, 25 miles south of Bassett in Rock County. These antelope were captured in Colorado on the reservation of the Pueblo Ordnance depot, with Stanley Ogilvie, Colorado regional game manager, in charge.

The pronghorns were driven by helicopter into an enclosure made of netting, then captured by hand and loaded into trucks on a catch-as-catch-can basis. Their subsequent release in the sandhills is the first step in the project. Mel Steen, Nebraska Game Commission director, conceives a buildup in antelope population in keeping with the capacities of the Nebraska range.

Capturing the antelope in this manner is facilitated by an odd characteristic: he doesn't like to jump over an obstruction. If the pronghorn is cruising along at 50 miles an hour and comes to a barbed-wire fence, he will try to go under it rather than over, even if the fence is quite low. The net traps at the ordnance depot reached to the ground.

The pronghorn antelope is full of quirks. He isn't really an antelope at all, but is in a class by himself, the Antilocapridae family. He is a native of North America, and fossil remains found at Hay Springs show his presence in this area hundreds of thousands of years ago.

The antelope's light markings on his throat and chest give him a dressed-up appearance, as if he should be wearing a necktie. His horns, unlike those of other hoofed mammals, consist of a compressed-hair sheath over a bony core. He sheds the sheath every fall. Or, rather, both he and she shed the sheath, for the doe also has horns. They, however, are shorter than her ears, while the horns of the buck can be impressive.

The pronghorn is cloven-hoofed like the giraffe, deer, and cattle. For sanitary purposes, he uses his forefeet like shovels, digging holes to cover his offal, something like a cat. He perspires through his nose like a dog. When startled from a prone position, he springs into the air like a tripped steel trap.

His eyes, because of their keenness, have been compared to binoculars, and wide-angle binoculars at that. They are as large as those of a horse, an animal often 16 times the weight of a pronghorn. His heavy coat of hair is designed to withstand Nebraska winters, for it is composed in large OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   part of dead air space, a splendid type of insulation. For hot summers he keeps the same heavy coat, but a set of skin muscles elevates the hairs for ventilation.

Other skin muscles can flash into view a white rump patch called a rosette. The rosette may serve as a danger signal, but authorities are by no means agreed on this. The pronghorn runs with his mouth open in order to gulp air more easily into the relatively large lungs which supply oxygen to a bloodstream pumped by a powerful and built-for-speed heart. He actually prefers weeds, sagebrush, and cacti to more deluxe fare.

If he happens to fall, because of a hunter's shot or by accident, he may scrape goodly sections of loosely attached hair from his body. He often has an oddly sagging jaw, as if he had a large cud of tobacco tucked in one side of his mouth. Captured individuals, as a matter of fact, have been known to relish tobacco in any form. For chewing, that is, not smoking.

He has a large bump of curiosity. Arthur S. Einarsen, in his excellent book on the pronghorn, reports that all day long a group of antelope near Burns, Oregon, stood and watched a group of men working a rock crusher. So, in addition to their other oddities, the pronghorn may be called the sidewalk superintendent of the wild. Needless to say, his curiosity often leads the prairie ghost into dangerous situations. Curiosity probably never killed a cat, despite the adage, but it has most certainly killed pronghorn antelope.

The pronghorn plays follow-the-leader all the time, even when this sheep-like characteristic leads to his destruction, as it sometimes does. If the group leader jumps over a cliff, so may a large number of others. At least, in March, 1944, 100 antelope were found dead at the base of a cliff in Wyoming, and this tendency to follow a leader was probably partly responsible.

The pronghorn kid is born in the spring, when the does leave the large winter bands and go into temporary seclusion. Twins are common. Like most young of the wild, the newborn kid has a difficult time avoiding bad weather and hungry predators. But he is well camouflaged and is believed to have no tell-tale body odor. And in a very few days he can run faster than any man.

The adult buck, a polygamous rascal, picks out a harem in the fall. The pronghorn is extremely gregarious, for after the mating season all age classes and both sexes may be seen grouped in large bands.

It is not possible for antelope to reinhabit all their one-time territory. But the Nebraska sandhills are essentially unchanged since the time of heavy pronghorn concentrations. If the Game Commission transplanting project is successful, the fleet prairie ghost will once again roam his historic range.

THE END

FISH HELP SCIENCE

CARP, buffalo, suckers, and gar—social outcasts in most Nebraska fishing waters—now rate more than a casual nod from even the most discriminate fishermen. Seems the four rough-fish species are doing their bit to help science.

Frequently much information about human function and malfunction can be obtained from a study of lower animals. Presently, Dr. T. B. Thorson of the University of Nebraska has such a project—a comparative study of the fluid compartments of fish and other vertebrate animals. Whether Dr. Thorson's findings will be applicable to humans remains to be seen. Nevertheless, the United States Public Health Service (National Heart Institute) is interested enough in his project to provide financial support for a five-year period.

According to Dr. Thorson, the bodies of all animals are made up largely of water, and if they are to function properly it is essential that the amount of water remain relatively constant. A certain amount of water must be present inside the cells if the cell activities are to take place normally. Likewise, a certain amount of water must be outside the cells and in the blood stream if the cells are to be nourished properly and the wastes removed effectively.

Normally the human-body maintains this "water balance" within very narrow limits, but occasionally something happens to upset this balance. When this happens the tissues become water-logged with an accumulation of excess fluid, or the body may throw off too much water and the tissues become dehydrated.

Severe disturbance of the water balance also occurs in shock and may be a serious problem in surgery. The whole question of water balance is therefore of great importance in medicine. Much research has been done on human water balance, but unfortunately there is practically no information available on the normal distribution of water in the bodies of lower animals. Dr. Thorson's investigation is attempting to fill this gap in knowledge.

Dr. Thorson's project will include measurements of the total body water and the distribution of that water in the bodies of fish, amphibians, birds, reptiles, and mammals. To date his work has been confined to fish, and he has already completed measurements on dogfish shark, ratfish or chimaera, two species of skate, barracuda, rainbow parrotfish, green moray, various snappers, and some groupers.

Presently he is working on fresh-water fish made available by the Nebraska Game Commission.

6 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA  

Flopping fish would present insurmountable difficulties in Dr. Thorson's studies, so he first anesthetizes the fish. Using a needle, he injects a solution of nembutal—a substance used commonly in sleeping pills—into the body cavity. In 15 to 30 minutes the fish is completely "out" and will remain so for the necessary four or five hours.

Of particular interest, Dr. Thorson reports, is the fact that the barracuda, often regarded as a pretty dangerous customer, was easier to handle in this manner than most of the other species. The moray eel, though, one of the most disagreeable fish, tore his dip net to shreds. But after it was anesthetized, it proved to be one of the best species to work with.

Once a fish is "out," Dr. Thorson places it on its back in a special box and places a hose with running water in its mouth to irrigate the gills and supply oxygen. Breathing movements have stopped, so artificial respiration in this manner is necessary to keep the fish alive. The fish is now ready to be operated on.

Several measurements are made, including that of the volume of blood plasma. If one places a drop of blue ink in a glass of water, the result will be a light-blue mixture, since the water has diluted the ink. The more water, the lighter the blue; the less water, the darker the blue. After the dye has had time to mix with all the blood, small samples of blood are drawn periodically from the heart. These are placed in a centrifuge which whirls at such a speed that the corpuscles sink to the bottom, leaving the clear plasma on top.

The depth of the blue in the plasma is compared with the original dye in a colorimeter, and from the resulting readings the volume of plasma in the fish can easily be calculated.

For other measurements a similar method is employed. After all samples have been taken, the fish is placed in an oven set at about 220° F.—slightly above the boiling point of water. The fish is left here for several days until all water has evaporated, then the total water content can be determined.

Once Dr. Thorson completes his study of fishes, he will direct his attention to reptiles, amphibians, birds, and then mammals, and here again he will have the co-operation of the Game Commission. There is no assurance, says Dr. Thorson, that the project will turn up anything of value. But then, again, the findings may be of tremendous importance. Only time will tell.

THE END MARCH, 1958 7

HAWKS AND FALCONS OF NEBRASKA

by Henry E. Baumgarten University of Nebraska

WOULD you care to guess the total number of species of birds that have been recorded as occurring within the borders of Nebraska? According to the "Check-list of Nebraska Birds," to be published by the Nebraska Ornithologists' Union this spring, there are authentic Nebraska records for 368 species of birds, not including the many subspecies, whose identification is often based on subtle variations in plumage, length of wing, tail, or mandible, etc. Some of the species have been recorded only once or twice in the state. Still others, like the passenger pigeon and Carolina parakeet, are now extinct.

The 386 species place Nebraska fourth among the states with respect to the number of species on the state bird list. Only Texas, California, and Arizona have longer lists. Perhaps the principal reasons for the occurrence of so many species in Nebraska are the state's central location and the variety of ecological areas within the state. Nebraska is neither too far east for western birds nor too far west for eastern birds. In the winter, birds from the far north often wander as far south as Nebraska, and in the spring, birds from the far south migrate to or through Nebraska. Prairie, sandhills, badlands, pine and deciduous forests, and natural and man-made lakes all provide breeding and resting places for the many birds.

Over the years thousands of Nebraskans have come to enjoy and appreciate the variety of bird life all around them. Those people who by necessity or design go often into the woods and fields have come to know much about our birds. Certainly, anyone not doing so can only profit by adding bird observation to his other outdoor activities. The greater the breadth of one's interest, the greater will be the return on the investment in time spent in the great outdoors. I know one world-famous chemist who for years has taken a pair of binoculars and a deck of cards on every fishing expedition to Canada. If the fish aren't biting, he glasses the birds of the Canadian forests. If neither the fish nor the birds are co-operative, he plays a "friendly little game" of poker. I can hardly encourage you to carry a deck of cards along, but anyone who wishes to get the most from the outdoors could scarcely do better than to invest a little money in binoculars and a little time in the study of our native birds.

Space does not permit a discussion of all 386 species of Nebraska birds, but it does afford a description of two small families of birds already less familiar to most outdoor folk. These two families called by the biologists and the layman the hawks and falcons, Accipitridae and Falconidae are among the most interesting of all birds. Twenty-one species—about two-thirds of all species of hawks and falcons found in the United States—have been recorded within the state.

Admittedly, hawk observation in Nebraska never reaches the exhilarating heights attributed to the sport at Pennsylvania's Hawk Mountain, the most famous hawk observation point in the eastern mountains. Thousands of people from most of the 48 states come to watch the waves of soaring hawks in the fall of the year. Some observers at Hawk Mountain have seen as many as 15,000 hawks per year. The same species and some others not known in the eastern part of the United States may be seen in Nebraska.

In hawk watching, as in many another sport, you can't really enjoy the game unless you know the players, and 8 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   the best way to come to know the players is to buy a program. Space doesn't permit me to describe the Nebraska hawks in such detail as to make you an expert at field identification. Any interested reader will do well to purchase one of the relatively inexpensive and beautifully illustrated field manuals now available at most bookstores.

Most readers are already familiar with the sight of the larger hawks spinning lazy circles high above the earth or sitting solemnly on telephone poles along our highways. Yet it has been demonstrated time and time again that relatively few people are adept at identifying the various hawks. For example, in Pennsylvania, where for some years a bounty was paid for goshawks, only 76 of 530 birds turned in for the bounty proved to be goshawks. Certainly, it is difficult to distinguish between certain species of hawks; however, for the most part it is a relatively simple matter to identify most hawks seen in Nebraska.

There are several physical features that should be looked for, such as the bird's size. Insofar as hawks are concerned, one should decide whether the bird is the size of a robin, larger than a robin but smaller than a crow, the size of a crow, larger than a crow, much larger than a crow, or extremely large. Although relative size is not always easy to determine, these crude classifications will aid in identification.

Another important field mark is the shape of the body, wings, and tail. The flight silhouettes accompanying this article illustrate the importance of this observation. Are the wings long or short, straight or kinked, rounded or pointed at the tips? Is the tail narrow or broad and fanshaped, square or rounded at the tip? The color of wings, body, and tail, the presence or absence of specific markings on the body, head, and wings may all provide important clues to the bird's identity.

Observation of flight patterns may also be very useful, for the short-winged hawks (bird hawks) rarely soar high in the open, while such soaring is one of the best field marks for the Buteos (buzzard hawks). The falcons, whose pointed wings are not adapted to sailing and soaring, fly with strong, swift strokes and attack their prey in steep plummeting dives. Any hawk seen hovering over one spot with little lateral motion is probably a rough-legged hawk (large), osprey (very large), or sparrow hawk (robin-sized). Other hawks rarely engage in this flight maneuver.

The hawk's habitat often aids in its identification. The short-winged hawks are woodland birds that work along the treetops or whip in and out along the edges of the woods. They are rarely found over the prairie. The Buteos, hawks of the open prairie, are seldom found deep in the woods or brush, although they, too, may be seen along the edges or perched in tall trees. They are most frequently seen on telephone poles or fence posts, from where they can scan the surrounding prairie.

Individual variations among hawks of the same species may result in an appearance that puzzles even the expert. This is particularly true in the Central Plains, where unusually dark or almost black (melanistic) birds and pale, almost white (albinistic) individuals may be seen. A good example of this phenomenon is the red-tailed hawk, one of the most common species in Nebraska. Amateur hawk watchers may be stumped by one of the bird's peculiar color variations. Furthermore, immature birds may lack the distinctive features of the adult.

For ease of comparison the hawks will be divided into smaller groups or subfamilies in which members share some common characteristic. The subfamilies of the hawks to be considered here are the Accipiters (short-winged hawks), Buteos, eagles, harriers, and ospreys. The falcons are a separate family. It may be noted that light and dark phases are most common in the Buteo group.

The Accipiters are long-tailed hawks with short, rounded wings. They are woodland birds, not normally found in the open. They take their prey by surprise, rarely following up, though, if the sneak attack is unsuccessful. Species MARCH, 1958 9   of this subfamily common in Nebraska are the sharp-shinned hawk and Cooper's hawk. Both are small with blue-gray backs and reddish, barred breasts. The Cooper's hawk is the larger of the two, a little smaller than a crow, and has a rounded tail. The smaller sharp-shinned hawk, scarcely larger than a robin, has a square or notched tail and is a rather common migrant throughout the state. Small numbers spend the winter in Nebraska, and the species has been known to breed in Sioux County. The Cooper's hawk is a resident species in Nebraska and breeds wherever suitable habitat occurs.

A relatively rare member of this same subfamily is the goshawk. Much larger than the other Accipiters, the goshawk has a pale-gray breast, a blue-gray back, and a white stripe over* the eye. All three of the Accipiters, with their short wings and long tail, habitually fly—when not on the attack—by means of a series of alternating quick, even strokes and short sails. These three hawks are the only species which may be legally killed in Nebraska.

The members of the Buteo subfamily are medium or very large, stocky hawks with broad, rounded wings and a long, full tail, which is generally carried spread out in a broad semicircle. This is the subfamily in which color variation is most common. The high-flying hawk of spring and summer, leisurely soaring and wheeling high in the sky, is likely to be of this species. As already mentioned they are often seen sitting on fence posts, telephone poles, or in solitary trees. Birds of this group found in Nebraska include the red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk, Swainson's hawk, broad-winged hawk, rough-legged hawk, and ferruginous hawk (formerly called ferruginous rough-legged hawk).

The red-tailed hawk is probably the most common Buteo in Nebraska. The bird is common throughout the state and breeds wherever suitable habitat occurs. Large numbers of red-tailed hawks winter in the state. Typical individuals are most readily identified by the bright rufous or reddish color of the upper surface of the tail. Unfortunately, many of our western red-tailed hawks show so much variation in tail color that color alone may not be an infallible criterion for their identification. The underparts of this hawk vary from light at the chest to darker across the belly.

An uncommon migrant throughout Nebraska is the red-shouldered hawk. Small numbers may be summer or winter residents in suitable parts of the state. This hawk has pale-red underparts and alternate narrow white and wide dark bands across the upper and lower surfaces of the tail. The red shoulders are quite distinctive but cannot always be seen. One good field mark, noticeable when the hawk is soaring overhead, is a white or translucent spot at the base of the primaries—long feathers at the wing tip.

The little broad-winged hawk appears in moderate numbers only during migration—usually in late April or early May. It is most common in the Missouri River Valley region and occasionally breeds on the bluffs along the river. About the size of a crow or Cooper's hawk, it has a banded tail, but unlike the red-shouldered hawk, the white and dark bands in this species are of approximately the same width. From below, the wings appear light with a dark border on the trailing edge.

Swainson's hawk is a summer resident and breeder in central and western Nebraska. Its principal migration route seems to pass through central Nebraska, and this prairie species is not found much farther east than eastern Nebraska. This hawk is best identified by the wide chestnutbrown band across the breast. This band may be narrow or absent altogether in young birds. The rest of the underparts are whitish and the upper surface of the tail is gray. Melanistic birds are quite common. From below, the flight feathers (along the rear of the wing) are usually darker than the light, buffy wing lining.

The rough-legged hawk is an uncommon migrant and winter resident in the eastern two-thirds of the state. Its status in the western part of the state is less certain. It is generally found over open country and is one of the few hawks that hover on beating wings over one spot on the prairie. This hawk is much larger than a crow. Its legs are feathered nearly to the base of the toes, a feature shared only with the ferruginous hawk and golden eagle. It has a dark belly and a broad, black band at the end of its white tail (visible also from below); however, it should not be confused with the othe hawks, which may show white at the base of the tail when seen from above. Black rough-legs are frequently encountered in Nebraska. From below, the rough-legged hawk shows black wrist marks at the bend of the wing.

The ferruginous hawk is an uncommon migrant and infrequently a permanent resident in western Nebraska, and rare in the eastern half of the state. It breeds in the sandhills along Pine Ridge and about the buttes of western and northwestern Nebraska. This large Buteo of the plains is dark rufous above and whitish below with a whitish tail.

The eagles are easily recognized by their great size and long wings. The bald eagle has a snow-white head and tail and can hardly be mistaken. The rest of the bird is dark brown; young birds may be all dark brown. The golden eagle is almost uniformly dark, with a variable amount of white at the base of the tail which is particularly visible from above and may be absent in the adult. The golden brown of the head and back of the neck is not often seen. The golden eagle is now an uncommon migrant and winter resident. It occasionally nests in Scotts Bluff, Sioux, and Dawes Counties. The bald eagle is also an uncommon Nebraska migrant and winter resident.

Nebraska's only harrier is the marsh hawk. It has a slim, trim appearance with rather narrow, long, rounded wings and a long tail. Males are pale gray; females are brown. Both show white patches at the base of the tail from above. This species is a common resident and breeder throughout the state. It commonly works slowly and persistently up and down, low over the meadows, marshes, 10 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   and prairie. Because of its low, slow flying, the marsh hawk presents an attractive target, and many are needlessly shot each year.

The osprey (fish hawk), a large eagle-like hawk generally found over or near water, is an uncommon migrant throughout the state. It is most abundant along the Missouri River. Although rarely seen in western Nebraska, it is known to go as far west as North Platte. The osprey is dark above and clear white below. Its white head bears a broad black stripe through the cheek. The bird flies with wings characteristically kinked. The sight of this large bird spiralling down after its prey, plunging into the water with wings held high, submerging nearly to the wing tips, and then rising powerfully out of the spray is a fascinating exhibition.

Characterized by long, pointed wings and a long, narrow tail is the falcon family. These are the birds preferred by falconers in the Old World and New, chosen for hunting because of their great strength, spirit, speed, and endurance. This species rarely soars and its flight is quite characteristic—quick, powerful strokes with very little sailing.

The falcons normally take their prey by rising high above it in a long spiralling climb, then dropping vertically on the victim for 100 feet or more with partially closed wings in a dive known as the "stoop." It has been estimated that in the stoop the peregrine falcon may reach a speed of 275 miles per hour. If the prey is not captured in the initial attack, these powerful birds carry the pursuit to a usually successful conclusion.

The prairie falcon is a bird of the Great Plains. It is a common migrant in the western half of the state, quite rare in other areas. A few are permanent residents, and small numbers nest high on cliffs, on ledges, and in crevices in Dawes and Sioux Counties. About the size of the crow, it has a rather pallid, sandy appearance, which, coupled with its falcon shape, is usually enough to identify it.

Formerly called duck hawk, the peregrine falcon is about the same size as the prairie falcon but has a slate-gray back, a finely barred belly, and heavy dark moustaches or "tears" on its cheeks below the eyes. This bird is relatively uncommon in Nebraska. Although it may have bred here in earlier days, there are no known contemporary breeding records.

The smaller pigeon hawk is a relatively rare migrant throughout the state. It looks much like a small peregrine falcon without the moustaches and is blue-gray above and light below.

The familiar little sparrow hawk, commonly seen perched on a telephone pole or hovering in one spot over the prairie, is about the size of the pigeon hawk but is not easily mistaken for it. Both males and females have red or rufous tails. The male has blue-gray wings and a red back; the female has both red wings and red back. Both have a characteristic facial pattern. The sparrow hawk is a common resident and breeder throughout the state.

Hawks and falcon families described here are certainly among the most interesting of our native birds. None of these species is especially numerous as bird populations go, yet they comprise some of the most persecuted of the non-game species. They share this dubious honor with the owl family, but the latter's nocturnal habits protect at least some members of the family. In the Summer, 1952, issue of OUTDOOR NEBRASKA I described the feeding habits of many of our native hawks and falcons based on comprehensive studies made over the years by state and federal biologists. The conclusions reached were that total damage done by all hawks is relatively minor, that only those individual hawks or falcons guilty of major and repeated offenses need be dealt with, and that any necessary control measures should rest solely in the hands of properly trained officials.

It is perhaps inevitable that a small minority of our citizens will ignore the laws and their responsibilities as citizens to preserve our wildlife as much as possible. Thoughtlessly, they will take game birds out of season, use non-game birds for target practice, or take it upon themselves to control those birds they consider predators. No law enforcement agency, however efficient, will be able to eliminate entirely such selfish and childish behavior. It is up to the rest of us to help by educating ourselves and others in ways of nondestructive enjoyment of the pleasures nature has to offer. Already many species of hawks are on the verge of extirpation in Nebraska. Let's do our part in saving these species from extinction.

THE END Flight Silhouettes March 1958 11

CAN FISH HEAR?

by David Gunston Hampshire, England (Reprinted from Pennsylvania Angler)

Camaraderie is all very well, part of the fun of fishing, but you will catch more fish if you remember that fish too, can hear

CAN FISH hear? It is an interesting question and one of considerable importance to anglers, but because of the absence in fish of ears of the human or animal type and the vast difference between sound in the air and sound under water, it is a controversial and complex one, full of apparent contradictions and marked by a startling lack of real knowledge.

For a long time it was generally supposed that fish were, to all intents and purposes, deaf. Then various anecdotes and experiments occurred which began to elucidate the question, and in recent times there have been many accurate scientific tests on the hearing of fishes of all kinds. The classic example of the inconclusive type of early experiment is that of the Benedictine monk who kept trout in a pool at Krems, in Austria. He had the notion of ringing a dinner-bell whenever he fed them. Standing on the edge of the water he had only to swing his bell a few times, and the fish would collect for their food. Then one day someone tried the trick without using a bell, merely swinging his arm up and down. The fish came just the same; it was the sight, and not the sound, that had attracted them.

Sounds, to most fish, must be vibrations in the water, not vibrations in the air, which is what we ourselves hear. Not many fish can hear aerial sounds to any extent unless they are accompanied by some vibration through the ground into the water. Fish have no external ears, and, unlike human beings, no middle ears. They possess only the sensitive inner ear, embedded in the bones of the skull. This leaves them under no disadvantage, however, for human ears are designed to catch sounds from the air and the actual hearing mechanism is the delicate inner ear, a capsule surrounded by bone and filled with liquid. In the water, which is a far better conductor of sound waves than the air, the fish needs neither outer, visible ear, nor middle ear to transport the sounds. It needs only a simpler 12 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   inner ear, without the liquid, for it is already in that transmitting liquid, the water.

But the spiral cochlea, the ultimate organ in human beings for turning actual heard sounds into nerve impulses, is altogether missing in fish. All it has is a small projection on the sacculus (the sac-like region surrounding the spiral cochlea when it is present, as in human beings and animals) called the lagena, which appears to be a far less delicate piece of mechanism. This fact seemed to indicate that, after all, fish cannot hear. But, missing cochlea apart, experiments have proved that fish can hear, and hear well, so we must conclude that the lagena has as its function the actual registering of sounds on the brain.

The ears of various kinds of fish, although conforming to that pattern, vary considerably. The simplest type of ear occurs in the hagfish, where a semicircular canal has a swelling at both ends which contain a jelly-like substance connected by fine hairs through sense cells and nerve fibres direct to the brain. Hearing is effected by oscillation of the jelly, which in turn moves the hairs and sends messages to the brain. In lampreys there is an additional canal set at right-angles to the original one, and with swellings only at one end. This gives a better sense of movement and balance, which are, of course, the other functions of ears. In the cartilaginous fishes there is a third canal covering the remaining place of space, and the more highly developed fish have minute grains of chalk, or otoliths, suspended in the jelly to make it even more sensitive. There are also some variations in the way the ears are connected to the external surface of the fish. Some lead through ducts direct to the water, others to the swim bladder. In the latter cases, vibrations in the water are picked up by the bladder and transmitted to the ears.

Even when it became obvious that fish could detect what we call sounds, some objectors put forward the explanation that such noises as tapping on a fish tank, or making a vibratory sound close to the water, were not really 'heard' by the fish, but registered through the skin in much the same way that we can 'hear' the sound when we place a hand on a piano being played.

But the experiments of Professor J. P. Frolov proved beyond any doubt the hearing capacities of fish. Defining hearing in fish as "any disturbance that produces hearing in the human ear which calls forth response in fish if it acts through the ear and not simply through the skin or some other organ," he placed a telephone inside a small balloon, submerged it in water and directed sounds of varying pitch at goldfish. He found that normal goldfish responded to all vibrations from 43 to 2,752 per second. Human hearing is roughly from 30 to 30,000 vibrations per second, with middle C at 256. By tethering the fish with an electric wire loosely fastened so that they could swim easily, the telephone sound was emitted and a weak electric shock given to the tethered fish simultaneously. They reacted with violent movement in the water. After some 40 tests, the shock was omitted and the fish responded as before to the telephone sound.

Other tests have shown that fish can be trained to come for food, or to move from one tank to another to get food, by making noises close by overhead. Tin whistles, organ pipes, guitar strings, and tuning forks have all been used in this wav with marked success, often as few as five or six trials onlv being needed to make the fish understand. Minnows have actually been trained to react to two different sounds by feeding them when one is made and hitting them gently when they hear the other. Kill fish responded to frequencies of only 96 when a viol string was stretched across its aquarium. Other fish have been recorded as responding to much higher sound frequencies, the minnow, 7,000 vibrations per second, and the catfish, 13,000. Frank Lane records meeting a lady who stated that her two pet carp actually "danced up and down" when dance music came over the radio near their aquarium.

The subsequent work of the two German investigators at the University of Munich, von Fritsch and Stetter, has shown that fish hearing is even better than was originally supposed. Minnows were blinded and when fed, taught to associate the appearance of food with a low sound made by a whistle or a tuning fork. After 12 or 15 times a reaction was obtained, and the fish could actually hear sounds made 200 feet away. A man diving into a larger aquarium alongside that containing the minnows could not hear the sounds any better than they obviously did. The range of sounds heard was proved to be quite great, and the experimenters showed that sounds much higher or lower could also be heard, as well as sounds only very slightly different in pitch, provided food-reactions were set up by practice. Some fish were even able to distinguish between a note and its minor third.

So therefore we have quite definite proof that a number of kinds of fish, among them minnows, goldfish, eels, catfish, and weakfish do hear, and there seems every reason to believe that tunny, tarpon, pike, and many larger fish also hear. Only the sharks and rays hear less well, it appears. Fish in shallower waters hear as a means of avoiding approaching danger, and those in the deep seawell, the ocean has now been proved to be a noisy, not a silent place, and if its denizens make sounds, as they quite definitely do, nature obviously means them to be heard.

The moral for anglers is, of course, to treat all fish as creatures with quite good hearing, especially in shallower waters. A noisy approach on a river bank will scare off likely fish, and undue noise at any time when angling is best avoided. Salmon will sometimes leap into the air if one smartly claps one's hands on approaching a pool. If one noisily plucks a fly from the water before a new cast it may well frighten trout and prevent them rising for quite a distance. Incidentally, minnows can hear better than trout, so don't even scare smaller fish. Trout are themselves scared when they see minnows alarmed, as they seem to realize thev do not hear as well and danger must be imminent.—THE END.

MARCH. 1958 13

KNOTS FOR NYLON

by William C. Blizzard Associate Editor An angler great Was Officer Tate, Of the constabulary; But Tate, he tripped, The knot, it slipped— What a vocabulary!

THE development of monofilament nylon line, in large part responsible for the upsurge of interest in spinning tackle, has led many an angler smack up against a big problem: knots.

Nylon is slippery stuff, most exasperating in small diameters. If you are a beginner at spinning, you are probably using a six-pound-test line; later, you will learn that four-pound line is all that is needed for anything except the biggest fresh-water fish.

These small-diameter lines are about as hard to see by man as they are by fish. And large fingers and small lines can lead to frayed tempers, especially when you lose a fine fish because of a slipping knot. If you have lost a good bass this way (as did Officer Tate), don't feel guilty —it has happened to others and will no doubt happen again.

There are two basic knots every spinning fisherman should know. In fact, any fisherman who uses nylon as leader material should know them. These are the clinch knot and perfection loop, easy to tie and proven nonslippers in nylon. The clinch is used to attach nylon leader OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   or line to hook or lure, the perfection to form a loop at the end of a line. This loop is used to attach easily removable snelled hooks, and for affixing small lures over which the loop will pass.

The accompanying photos show how to tie these knots. The clinch is simpler, but the perfection is fast, once learned. In the "improved clinch," an additional step is added to the regular clinch knot. Some of the experts believe that this step adds to the strength of the knot. By the relative strength of a knot, we mean the per cent by which it diminishes the strength of the unknotted line. All knots weaken a line somewhat, but the clinch and perfection test high in this respect. This is not an unimportant point, especially in spinning, for if you are using a four-pound-test line and the knot attaching the hook weakens your line by 50 per cent, you are actually fishing with a two-pound line.

The clinch and perfection are good basic knots, neither weakening your line severely nor slipping when you hook that trophy fish.

THE END MARCH, 1958 15

COURTSHIP

by Phil Agee Project Leader

MOST of us are well aware of the direction a young man's fancy turns in spring. And if we should care to look beyond our own species, we would find that the fancies of many other species are similarly turned. Beginning the second week of March, anyone who will take time to observe the happenings in the wild may be rewarded with one of the most interesting phenomena of nature in courtship.

Throughout the state, cock pheasants will abandon the relatively quiet, secretive patterns of behavior to become cavorting sultans who are obviously feeling their oats. A cock's activities are largely confined to his "territory," which is an area of an acre or so, and only he is aware of the boundaries. The cock spends much time trying to teach (rather forcefully) other cocks to stay outside these imaginary lines. Needless to say, there are a good many skirmishes between the occupants of neighboring territories. And it is interesting to note that, other things being equal, the victor will be the cock having the largest and most brilliant red cheek patches. In fact, it is possible to "fix" a fight before it starts by painting these areas with water colors.

But territories were not made just to cause disputes; it is here that the cock carries on his courtship. Mornings and evenings and frequently middays are spent in a conspicuous place there, announcing his presence every few minutes by beating his wings violently and then emitting his raucous urk-ururk. And when his efforts are at last rewarded by the appearance of a hen, he goes all out to appear as large and colorful as possible. Every showy feather is spread for the most advantageous display. If the hen indicates receptiveness, mating occurs, and she will probably become a member of that cock's harem.

Polygamy is the general rule with the pheasant—and the species in which the male is more vividly marked than the female. In these species also, it is the female which chooses the mate, and she assumes sole responsibility in incubation and brooding.

The situation is exactly reversed in the case of the phalarope, a shorebird which frequents Nebraska's waters during spring and fall migration. In this case the brightly colored female displays before the rather dismally colored male. And it is the male who takes charge of incubating the eggs.

In waterfowl, courtship and "pairing off" begins well before spring. However, it is still in progress at the time of the northward migration. Intricate flight maneuvers, diving, neck pumping, and chasing are rules of the day and provide fascinating hours on a marsh.

But no bird presents a more interesting display than our sharp-tailed grouse and prairie chicken. Several males may assemble on a single breeding ground to court individual hens as they arrive. It has been speculated that many of the dances characterizing the prairie Indians were copied from the courting activities of these grouse.

We can readily see that where selection of a mate is based to some degree upon the brilliance and intensity of display, the development of plumage, vocal powers, and antics for courtship have become more and more highly developed through evolution.

There are probably as many different patterns of courtship as there are species of birds, and every one is a source of interest. To attain an accurate appreciation of the courtship, it is necessary to see it in its proper light. It should not be considered an act of ardor or an expression of personal regard, but merely a behavior pattern set into motion by factors in the environment such as changing hours of daylight, temperature, and nutrition. Perhaps the line of distinction is fine, but we should not attempt to explain the acts of birds and mammals by endowing them with human emotions and powers of reasoning. THE END.

Deer Vatapa 1 tablespoon olive oil V2 pound sausage 1 small onion, chopped 1 clove garlic, mashed 7 cups water V2 teaspoon salt yellow corn meal 1 pound deer tenderloin, cooked and ground fine 1 bay leaf V± pound shredded coconut 1 green pepper, chopped fine V2 cup roasted peanuts, ground very fine

Cook onion, garlic, bay leaf, green pepper, olive oil in 2 cups of water for 5 minutes. Season with salt. Add deer meat. Cover. Simmer 15 minutes. Strain broth. Set aside.

Add coconut to 5 cups water and bring to boiling point. Simmer a few minutes. Add ground nuts and sausage. Simmer few minutes longer. Add strained broth. Bring to boiling point. Add deer meat. Season with salt. Stir in corn meal to make a smooth, thick mush. Cook 30 minutes. Keep stirring to prevent burning.

Wheat Cakes 1 cake yeast Va cup warm water 1 cup buckwheat flour 1/4 cup cornmeal 2 1/2 cups boiling water 1/2 cup white flour

Dissolve yeast in Va cup warm water. Mix with all other ingredients. Let rise overnight. Next morning cook on hot griddle.

—New Hampshire Fish and Game Newsletter 16 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA

EXOTIC FISH

by Orty Orr, Project Leader

THE INTRODUCTION of "exotic" species of game fish, birds, and mammals has been an important management practice employed by wildlife conservationists. In strict definition the term exotic species may refer to a form that has been introduced from a foreign continent; however, in the field of wildlife conservation any species that is not native to a region and has been introduced by man is often called an exotic. This implies that there was an ecological barrier or barriers over which the organism could not pass. The influence and effectiveness of these barriers depend upon the motility of the organism. In case of animals that fly, barriers must be extensive, where for animals that swim, an effective ecological barrier may be but a few miles, perhaps no farther away than the adjacent watershed. Thus a species of fish whose range is extensive in one state may be considered an exotic species in a neighboring state where it does not occur naturally. In this relation, then, the term exotic species is used in its broadest sense.

The International Association of Game, Fish, and Conservation Commissioners has established a committee whose basic function is to make recommendations to the Federal Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. These recommendations concern both the introduction of desirable species on as sound a basis as investigation, science; and experience permit, and the control or prevention of the introduction of undesirable species. Many people would be much happier had such controls been in force during the early days when species that we now regard as pest or problem species were originally introduced. Typical examples are the carp and the small weaver finch, more commonly known as the English sparrow.

In regard to exotic fish in Nebraska, there are not many among our fauna that can be listed as such. Most of the species we know as game, rough, or forage fishes are native. The notable exceptions are the brown trout and carp. Other species that have been introduced are the brook trout, white bass, and recently the redear sunfish.

Of these three, only the white bass has produced fishing of much significance in Nebraska. Up to now, the best white-bass fishing has been in McConaughy Reservoir, where that species was first introduced in 1943. White bass have spread through the Platte Valley Reservoir system, but nowhere as successfully as in McConaughy. In Harlan County Reservoir, the white-bass population is developing and making exceptional growth. Yearling white bass taken during their second summer were found to be 11 inches long. How well this growth rate compares with that of the yearling white bass during the first years in McConaughy is unknown.

Brook trout have been widely introduced westward from the East Coast, and are successful where adequate habitat conditions exist. In Nebraska there is little such habitat, except in a few small streams in the panhandle. The upper part of Monroe Creek, in northern Sioux County, is overpopulated with native-spawned brook trout. Management of brook trout in Nebraska is being restricted to limited put-and-take releases in marginal streams and sand pits, and the planting of advanced fingerling is limited to streams that may be suitable and where natural disaster phenomona have occurred.

The redear sunfish was introduced in Nebraska during the fall of 1957, principally to help fill a food niche. The redear is fond of snails and has strong pharyngeal arches MARCH, 1958 17   with molar-like teeth with which it crushes the shell of snails. In the South, where the redear is a native, it is known as the "shellcracker." There are a few other fishes that occasionally take snails, though not by preference as with the redear. In appearance, the redear is similar to the bluegill. The two species are known to hybridize; however, the redear grows to a larger size. Methods of fishing for the two species are comparable, except that the redear usually will not take artificial bait as readily.

The redear fingerlings—received from Oklahoma—have been stocked in a variety of small lakes and farm ponds in different areas of the state. Brood stock is being retained in the hatcheries, as this species, unlike white bass, can be successfully propagated artificially.

Another bass, the smallmouth, was probably found in some of our streams along the eastern part of the state before agricultural use of the land and other activities of the white man reduced stream habitat conditions. The smallmouth was reintroduced in 1954 in McConaughy Reservoir, where a population of this sporty game fish is developing. Numerous schools of young-of-the year small-mouths were seen in the spring of 1957

Possible introductions of new species in the near future may include the muskie and the kokanee salmon. Introduction of these species, however, would not be done with the expectation that they would become widespread. Both would be planted on an experimental basis in selected localities.

Since the muskie, like all pike, prefers clear water, sandy bottoms, and considerable vegetation, such habitat in Nebraska would be limited to the larger sandhill lakes and perhaps some reservoirs. The muskie is a fine game fish and a great predator, both qualities making him a desirable species.

During the past two years, muskie eggs have been procured from New York State. Unfortunate circumstances, however, have combined to prevent successful establishment of this fish. The first shipment of eggs was received at the Valentine hatchery in 1956, and the eggs hatched well. Fry were planted in one of the brood ponds, but no fingerlings were found when the pond was drained a few weeks later. Apparently the pond environment was not suitable for survival or the technique of handling the fry was faulty. The shipment of eggs in 1957 was again flown in, but unfortunate delays were of such extent that the eggs spoiled before they reached hatching facilities. It is anticipated that the experiment will be given another try.

Kokanee salmon can also make a significant contribution to a sportfish population if habitat conditions are suitable. This landlocked form of the Pacific sockeye or red salmon is a native of the Pacific Northwest, where it is called "little redfish" and "silver trout." Under favorable conditions, it may reach a size of five pounds; however, 12 to 14 inches in length is average and where conditions are poor, it seldom exceeds eight inches. The kokanee is primarily a lake resident and may spawn on gravelly lake shores as well as in inflowing streams. It matures and spawns at the end of the third or fourth year and, like all Pacific salmon, dies after spawning.

The kokanee likes cool water and consequently is found in deeper water in the summer. Peak summer temperatures in Nebraska waters will probably be the limiting factor for this species. Although the kokanee's food is made up largely of plankton—the minute animals which drift in the water—it can easily be taken on hook and line. Trolling with spinners and still fishing with bait near the bottom are favored methods. Fly fishing is often successful in the late afternoon in spring when the fish are near the .surface. The kokanee puts up a good fight but is tender-mouthed and consequently somewhat hard to land. It is excellent eating. Where it does well, this fish provides fine angling.

The introduction of exotics should be viewed just as a sensible person looks upon any change: you should be neither hidebound nor rashly experimental. In the case of a fish like the carp, perhaps someone should have looked a lot longer before he let them leap.

But one swallow does not make a spring, and one carp does not make a catastrophe. If conditions seem right and the fish seem right, transplantation of exotics can be a marvelous boon to all worm drowners, feather swishers, and plug heavers. Not to mention table huggers.

Perhaps the ancestors of the last fish you caught didn't come over on the Mayflower. Perhaps he himself didn't arrive until long after the Ford. But if he bites well, fights well, and eats well, what more can you ask? Happy landings!

THE END 18 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA

1957 Progress Only The Beginning of A New Era

M. O. Sieen, Director

THE annual report of the Game, Forestation and Parks Commission reflects healthy growth of the agency and expanding activities thai will conserve and increase Nebraska's outdoor resources. More professional experience, more field research, and more and better tools have been made possible by more income. The net result is that more and better work is under way.

It gives us no end of pleasure to say that this is only the beginning of a new era, that progress will gather momentum with each passing year. This progress is yours, dear reader, because you give us the support that makes it possible.

Following are highlights of the 1957 annual report, by divisions. Limited copies of the complete report are available by writing to Game Commission, State House, Lincoln 9.

LAND MANAGEMENT AND PARKS DIVISION

In 1952, the Game Commission entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, agreeing to assume management of project lands of the three reservoirs then proposed in the Republican River Basin in southwestern Nebraska. The Commission assumed management of Enders and Medicine Creek Reservoirs in 1952, and Swanson in 1954.

Under the terms of the agreement, all monies derived from subleases are put back in the project. Total expended for all purposes to date is $117,926.51. Total income to date, derived through various subleases such as concession, agricultural, private cabin sites, and organized camp sites, is $103,995.

The division's Upland Game Restoration project, concerned with the development and preservation of wildlife food and cover, received major attention. Availability of good habitat, especially food and cover, is the most influential factor in the rise and fall of wildlife populations, and one that has been and can be manipulated by manfor better or for worse.

Recognizing that most game in Nebraska is raised and harvested on privately owned agricultural lands, this division procured technically trained personnel from the ranks of young men with agricultural backgrounds and who have attained college degrees in agriculture or wildlife management. The primary duty of these men is to work directly with land operators in the promotion and execution of the program.

Following is a summary of their activities and accomplishments for the 1956-57 fiscal year:

Number of new co operators 340 Number of old co-operators contracting for new plantings 92 Total acreage of new plantings 407.45 Number of co-operators receiving replant stock 362 Amount of nursery stock used, in plants 909,270 Acres of existing cover saved 335.6 Number of landowners contacted in person 1,020

Certain revenues accrue to the Game Commission through various phases of management, such as returns from concessions, agricultural operations, rental cabins, and miscellaneous permits. Income from such sources is MARCH, 1958 19   shown on an annual comparative basis for the past three years:

TYPE OF AREA 1955 1956 1957 Miscellaneous areas $12,808.98 $13,467.90 $28,682.16 Reservoirs 18,480.56 21,031.09 12,902.22 Stale parks 22,423.56 28,609.76 36,608.36

Comparative state park receipts:

STATE PARK Arbor Lodge Chadron Niobrara Ponca Victoria Springs *Fort Robinson Not open full season. $53,713.10 $63,108.75 $78,192.74 k receipts: 1955 1956 1957 $ 4,009.95 $ 4,222.90 $ 4,163.55 10,002.44 12,059.54 12,583.30 6,571.10 5,580.32 12,944.95 1,197.00 6,138.00 4,969.40 595.45 609.00 528.50 .00 .00 1,418.98 $22,375.94 $28,609.76 $36,608.68

STATE PARK ATTENDANCE: From a factual standpoint, attendance should more correctly be termed "visitation," as attendance figures actually reflect the number of visits made to an area rather than the number of individuals who attend parks. The following table illustrates the attendance trend over the past few years:

PARK 1950 1955 1956 1957 Arbor Lodge 24,707 58,843 69,204 88,930 Chadron 61,842 84,780 132,550 96,913 Fori Kearny Unknown 15,000 15,205 17,500 Fori Robinson None None None 10,000 Niobrara 48,300 91,170 107,186 163,428 Ponca 74,300 62,963 92,068 94,077 Siolley 27,930 40,463 66,948 69,732 Victoria Springs 9,645 29,584 27,967 20,095 219,724 382,803 511,128 560,675

Last year, 19,078 persons used overnight facilities in the seven state parks. Type of use: rental cabin guests, 5,367; organized camp guests, 2,543; campers, 11,168. These persons spent a total of 38,304 guest nights in the parks. Type of use: cabin guest nights, 11,163; organized camp guests, 11,360; camper guest nights, 15,781.

The average cabin rental in the state parks was for five days, with an average of 2.8 persons per occupancy.

SWIMMING POOLS: The two new pools—at Ponca and Niobrara—showed a great deal of popularity. Both pools had receipts in excess of operational costs in spite of the fact that much of the season was cold and rainy. Niobrara's pool had a paid attendance of 14,844 persons. This figure does not include the estimated 1,850 organized camp youths whose camp fees covered pool admittance.

Ponca had a paid attendance of 9,547 for the pool, plus an estimated organized camp attendance of 2,600. This figure compares favorably with the previous year's attendance.

Total admissions to the two pools was 28,841.

Nebraska state parks are operating very close to maximum capability. It is essential that the system be broadened in the near future if we are able to adequately provide for Nebraska's citizens and visitors.

GAME DIVISION

The intensive study of the life history and ecology of the pheasant, started in 1954, was continued during 1957. Objective is to secure the facts needed to better understand the ringneck so as to manage him more intelligently. This work is being done on three study areas near Fairmont, Clay Center, and Harvard,

Of interest is the fact that only 15 per cent of the nests found on the study area hatched successfully. Predation caused the destruction of 21 per cent of the nests; farming operations destroyed 35 per cent. No hens on the predatordestroyed nests were killed, but 18 per cent of the hens on the nests destroyed by farming operations were killed.

The '57 study also showed that 65 per cent of the chicks produced were hatched in roadside cover, 29 per cent in wheat, and 6 per cent in alfalfa. Nests, too, were found in field borders and unused areas, mostly weedy growth, but none of these nests was successful.

Almost 27,000 pheasants were released during the year. In addition, more than 2,500 birds are being held at the Norfolk Game Farm for 1958 production.

In late April, surveys showed that the state's breeding potential was at its lowest level in some years. The picture brightened considerably, however, as the reproduction season progressed. Beginning in early July, conservation officers and technicians kept records of the birds they saw. Their figures indicated definite improvement in the number of chicks being produced. Mail carriers recorded an encouraging 28 per cent increase in the number of young birds per adult hen. At this point, early August, data indicated hunting comparable to that in 1956.

The actual hunting success in 1957 was influenced more by habitat conditions than by the pheasant population level. Unharvested corn and milo in the field made hunting unusually difficult.

Extensive surveys of Nebraska's prairie chicken and sharp-tailed grouse were carried on during the year to obtain population data. Census data was obtained by different methods, foremost of which was the survey of dancing and booming grounds on 15 automobile transects.

Hunting success last fall was about the same as in 1956, as hunters took an average daily bag of 0.63 birds.

Nebraska's bobwhite quail experienced another very good year in 1957. There was an excellent carry-over of 20 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   birds from the fall of 1956. Hatching and rearing conditions were favorable and the fall population was one of the best in recent years.

Quail hunting co-operators reported finding a covey for every hour and 11 minutes of hunting time. They averaged 4.1 birds per hunt and 20.2 birds for the season. Data collected on 1,600 birds taken by hunters indicated a high percentage (86.3) of young birds in the fall population.

During the year, 23,740 five-week-old coturnix quail were banded and released in groups of 740 birds per township in 31 Nebraska counties. There have been numerous reports of successful reproduction by the released birds, and a number of banded birds have been recovered in the south, mainly in Texas.

Several surveys and investigational projects were carried out to provide information essential to the flyway concept of management and to provide data on the life history of waterfowl species occurring in Nebraska. Large numbers of mallards winter in the state and the total duck harvest in Nebraska ranks among the top four of the Central Flyway states.

Nebraska's 1957 deer season was outstanding in the number of deer harvested and hunting success. Twelve state records were broken, and Nebraskans are now beginning to reap the harvest of the Game Commission's longrange program.

The program's objectives are twofold. First is to produce deer populations that will provide the greatest amount of recreation for Nebraska's big-game hunters over the longest period of time; and second, to maintain populations that are consistent with our many other land uses.

The 1957 season conformed with the over-all management objectives. The season was geared to provide the maximum amount of recreation within bounds of the big-game resources in the state. Hunters chalked up a record harvest of 8,470 deer. Primary consideration was given to those management units in which deer were becoming an economic problem. Management techniques were applied and tested, confirming decisions of the Game Commission.

Reports of hog-dressed deer exceeding 200 pounds were relatively common, and several of the more fortunate hunters bagged animals hog-dressing better than 250 pounds. Some of the records established in 1957:

Largest number of archers—658 (275 in '56); largest number of deer taken by archers—79 (28 in '56); highest success percentage by archers—12 per cent (10 per cent in '56); largest open area for archers—all counties (21 counties and Bessey Division of Nebraska National Forest in '56); largest number of counties open to rifle hunters —32 (31 in '56); most years without hunting fatality—10 (9 in '56).

Following is a breakdown of the deer harvest:

No. No. Hunting Management permits deer Success Unit issued harvested (per cent) Pine Ridge (October) 3.748 2,921 78.0 Pine Ridge (November) 3.195 1,898 59.6 Plains 607 380 62.6 Upper Platte 1,772 1,211 67.3 Sandhills 1,783 1,446 81.0 Halsey 400 322 80.5 Upper Missouri 495 169 34.2 Elkhorn 174 43 24.7 Totals 12,174 8,390 68.8 FISHERIES DIVISION

More emphasis than ever before was placed on lake investigations in Nebraska last year, preliminary to lake renovation, seining, or stocking in an effort to provide maximum fishing returns.

Such investigations help determine composition of the fish populations—ratio of game fish to rough fish, as an example. In several lakes it was found that buffalo and shad—rarely caught on hook and line—dominated to the point that fishing was at a virtual standstill. In such lakes the only solution was renovation and restocking with a balanced game-fish population.

The end of drought conditions last spring was a boon to fishing. The resultant higher water levels in most lakes provided more spawning and food-producing areas. This should result in better fishing in many areas within the next few years, if these conditions continue.

The fisheries division handled a grand total of 3,422,020 fish. This included almost 3,000,000 produced and stocked from the five hatcheries as fry, fingerlings, and adults-bass, bluegill, crappie, northern pike, channel catfish, blue MARCH, 1958 21   catfish, walleye, rainbow and brown trout. This was the highest one-year total since 1949.

The grand total also included 26,000 catfish trapped in the Missouri and Niobrara Rivers and stocked; 87,000 fish salvaged and stocked; 76,000 fish produced by the federal hatchery at Crawford and stocked by Game Commission personnel; and 240,000 fish seined, transferred, and stocked.

In addition, 471,000 pounds of rough fish—carp, buffalo, quillback, and shad—were removed from lakes and streams and subsequently stocked, sold, or buried. Almost half the fish were sold. These were either too small for stocking or were uncatchable by hook and line—shad, buffalo, quillback. Receipts totaled about $12,000, twice the cost of removing and selling the fish.

Seventy-five lakes scattered throughout the state were seined for such purposes as rough fish removal, fish salvage, fish transfer, or for determining the population composition.

The North Platte hatchery achieved considerable success in its detailed operational plan aimed at increasing production of northern pike and walleye fingerlings. Fisheries biologists, working with hatchery personnel, experimentally tried different combinations of fertilizers for food production, different times for filling and draining the ponds, best size of fish for stocking, and spawn-taking methods.

CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING

The Game Commission owns and controls approximately 14,550 acres of land and water that are used almost exclusively for recreational purposes. There are 44 recreation areas that require constant maintenance and five that require periodic maintenance. Normal maintenance includes the maintenance of all grounds, equipment, buildings, fireplaces, pumps, tables, roads, etc.; mowing of picnic areas; trimming and planting trees; picking up litter; disposing of trash; regular sampling of drinking water; the construction and repair of fills and water control structures; muskrat and beaver control; and other miscellaneous items.

Following are the state areas at which major improvements were made in '57:

Alexandria (4 miles east of Alexandria)—Additional ground cleared for picnic area; additional picnic facilities installed; some 700 cubic yards of dirt hauled to rebuild some of the roads. Arnold (1 mile south of A'rnold)—Four new fireplaces built; gravel hauled in for roads; lake sprayed to kill aquatic vegetation. Atkinson (1 mile west of Atkinson)—Four new fireplaces installed; wave breakers rebuilt; gravel hauled in for road, as was rock for riprapping. Big Alkali (20 miles south, 4 miles west of Valentine)—Four new fireplaces, two new picnic tables constructed; gravel hauled in for roads.

Blue River (between Milford and Dorchester on State Highway No. 6)—area fenced. Bowman Lake (2 miles west of Loup City). Two new fireplaces, four new picnic tables built; 135 cubic yards of broken concrete and brick hauled in to repair diversion structures. Bridgeport (1 mile northwest of Bridgeport)—Three new picnic tables built; 5,376 cubic yards of earth moved in for construction of new road; fill hauled in to construct a dike; 105 cubic yards of broken concrete placed on riprap. Cottonmill (3\2 miles northwest of Kearney)—Six new picnic tables, four new fireplaces, two new toilets installed. Crystal Lake (1 mile northwest of Ayr)—710 cubic yards of dirt, 245 cubic yards of rock hauled in for embankment protection; raised fill around skating shelter; boat dock installed; much silt removed and picnic facilities and shelter houses refinished after spring flood.

Crystal Lake (2 miles southwest of South Sioux City)—648 cubic yards of clay hauled for surfacing roads in west area; new fireplaces constructed. Dead Timber (1 mile east, \2 mile south of Crowell)—New well drilled and pump installed; road regraded; various signs installed. Fremont (4 miles west of Fremont)—647 trees removed in clearing new area; eight crappie beds built; boat docks installed; well drilled and pump installed; parking guard rail installed; 2,399 cubic yards of fill hauled to rebuild roads; 1,150 cubic yards of road surfacing hauled and strung; 144 linear feet of drainage tile laid; fireplaces constructed. Gallagher Canyon (9 miles south of Cozad)—Constructed crappie beds to improve fishing.

Goose Lake (25 miles south of O'Neill)—Fire guard constructed. Grove Lake (3 miles north, y2.mile east of Royal)—345 cubic yards of fill hauled to rebuild roads; 65 cubic yards of road gravel hauled for resurfacing; fireplaces constructed. Hayes Center (12 miles northeast of Hayes Center)—two new fireplaces built; guard railing constructed. Johnson Reservoir (7 miles southwest of Lexington)— Transplanted 450 cedar and pine trees which were in right-of-way of new state highway; three new fireplaces, and four new picnic tables installed. Louisville (northwest edge of Louisville)—4,500 cubic yards of dirt excavated from drainage canal; state highway No. 50 is being routed through the south edge of east area, and agreement reached for dirt contractor to secure fill from a designated place. This will make another lake of about 15 surface acres, 16 feet deep. Maloney (5 miles southwest of North Platte)—Two new bath houses, two new toilets, two new fireplaces, 15 new picnic tables installed; 145 trees planted; areas graveled; boat ramp installed (assisted Boat Club).

Memphis (V2 mile northwest of Memphis)—1,200 feet of wave breakers installed; eight new trash barrels, two new picnic tables placed. Olier Creek (30 miles northwest of Ogallala)—35 trees planted; one mile of fire guard constructed. Pibel Lake (12 miles northwest of Spalding)—400 cubic yards of fill hauled to improve roads; fireplaces constructed. Plallsmoulh (IV2 miles northeast of Plattsmouth)— About 1,000 acres cleared; permanent water supply, 180 feet wide, almost one mile long, average depth of eight feet, was excavated; barrow used to erect dike around the waterway. Pressey (5 miles north of Oconto)—Four new fireplaces built.

Ravenna (1 mile east of Ravenna)—Two new fireplaces installed; aquatic vegetation sprayed; fill material hauled in for roads. Rock Creek (5 miles north of Parks)—Roads regraded. Schlagel Creek (15 miles southeast of Valentine)—520 feet of pipe salvaged for use at Valentine hatchery. Smith Lake (23 miles south of Rushville)—500 trees planted; 187 tons of hay harvested. Sutherland Inlet and Outlet (7 miles southwest of Sutherland)—Three new fireplaces, two new picnic tables placed; two concrete well platforms built; road constructed. Verdon (1 mile west of Verdon)—Lake bed excavated and increase of height of perimeter dike completed; 60 million gallons of water pumped into lake; grass seeded; 250 trees planted; two picnic tables, 11 trash barrels, four fireplaces installed; 460 cubic yards of rock riprap hauled and placed.

Walgren (5 miles southeast of Hayes Springs)—Five, fireplaces, two toilets, three picnic tables installed; road regraded and regraveled. Wellfleet (l2 mile west of Wellfleet)—Two 48-inch corrugated metal tubes installed, replacing old concrete outlet box; entire dam raised three feet; two fireplaces added; gravel hauled and spread for a swimming beach. Wildcat Hills (10 miles south of Gering)— Seven fireplaces built.

Gretna Fish Hatchery—One rearing pond cleaned out by excavation and removal of silt. North Platte Hatchery—100 feet of water main dug out and repaired; water supply tank erected; 480 cubic yards of gravel hauled and strung on the roads. Rock Creek Fish Hatchery—5,000 cubic yards of silt removed from rearing ponds, some of which was used to raise roads and dikes; spring supplying water to hatch house was dug out and repaired; rock hauled in for riprapping. Valentine Fish Hatchery—Three rearing ponds cleaned; the 9,000 cubic yards of silt from them was deposited on roads and dikes; survey ran to locate waterline route; 250 feet of old line salvaged.

Niobrara State Park—Construction of new administration building started; additional road constructed; fish salvaged from park lake. Ponca State Park—New parking area constructed near river; additional road constructed; 267 dead trees removed.

Acquisition of property—Acquisition of 540 acres to be purchased for the Burchard Lake site is in progress; title to 160 acres has been secured; options for the rest have been exercised.

Options have been secured and exercised for the purchase of 720 acres of the watershed to Orchard Lake.

MISCELLANY: During 1957 legislative session a bill was passed providing for a $1 "use" stamp for each car using the recreation areas. This stamp will permit a car to enter one or all of the recreation areas for the year.

A tabulation of recreation-ground use was completed in '57. Highlights of the tabulation include this information —total automobile attendance (462,100); average number of visits made by each person (4.8); total attendance, which includes the repeat visits (1,714,700); percentage of visitors using area for purposes other than fishing or hunting (51).

INFORMATION AND EDUCATION DIVISION

Almost one million copies of printed material were mailed by this division last year in an effort to keep Nebraskans posted on fishing, hunting, and associated recreation in the state.

Bulk of the printed matter consisted of fishing regulations and the combined hunting and trapping regulations. Other major publications, sent mostly on written request, were the OUTDOOR NEBRASKA magazine, 1957-1958 Nebraska Game Laws, Nebraska Deer Bulletin, and Nebraska Antelope Bulletin.

The change in frequency of OUTDOOR NEBRASKA to a monthly magazine, weekly mailing of Wildlife Notes to all Nebraska newspapers and radio and television stations, construction of permanent wildlife pens for the state fair exhibit, reorganization of the division, and the beginning of black-and-white and color photo catalogues were some of the division's major accomplishments in 1957.

22 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA

WATERSHED FOR WILDLIFE

by Del Whiteley Supervisor, Land Management

IN the summer of 1954, the 83rd Congress passed a bill called "The Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act." It was so designated because its fundamental purpose was to hold rain water on the soil where it fell, and to prevent floods from maiming homes, populations, and croplands in the valleys below. This Watershed Act and the work that followed are healing the scars caused by the rampaging waters that tore away the soil particles and their nutrients so necessary for vegetation.

Today in the watersheds it is possible to establish vegetation because terraces now rise across the slopes, intercepting run-off water and carrying it slowly to grassed waterways that empty into large grade stabilization and flood-water control structures. These structures and the land treatment that has been developed by the Soil Conservation Service lie in what we call the formal watersheds.

In southeast Nebraska, these are the Upper Salt, Swedeburg, Indian Creek, and Brownell Creek. Other watersheds in southwest Nebraska and the Panhandle are in the planning and early development stages.

What does this watershed business have to do with wildlife? First of all, we should remember that any good land treatment is beneficial to wildlife, just as it is to livestock, to the soil, or to the farmer. We forget too often that strong, healthy wildlife does not come out of the dust bowl or the badlands, or for that matter, from 160 acres of badly eroded land. Hence we discover wildlife is a product of good soils—a product of agriculture. Agricultural technology, we say on one hand, has pushed out some of our wildlife species. On the other hand, it has provided for such developments as the formal watersheds with resultant reclamation of eroded soils and restoration of vegetation.

Construction of terraces, waterways, and dams has resulted in the establishment of much permanent vegetation. Such cover will increase the wildlife potential, and the better the potential, the better the prospects for future hunting.

The wildlife development program under way is aimed at the small, irregular-shaped areas that resulted from the construction of a dam, waterway, or terraces. Generally, it is an area that could be developed into a protected nesting site for quail and pheasants. An area of this type may be one that the farmer has no particular use for—a steep slope isolated by a grade stabilization structure, .or a rock outcrop cut off in a corner by terraces. Any small area within one of the watersheds will be considered for development.

Since these areas are selected primarily for their potential as nesting sites, they must be protected from mowing, burning, grazing, cultivation, and excess water. The MARCH, 1958 23   farmer or co-operator can control most of these through the use of good wildlife management practices. Game Commission technicians will not select sites for development that are subject to possible flooding, such as in the emergency spillway of a large structure, or adjacent to the pool where a rise in the water level may overflow the nesting site.

The development program in the watershed deals primarily with grass-legume seedings. A mixture of native and introduced grasses plus two or three legumes is used for establishing permanent nesting cover. The grass and legume seed and fencing material are furnished by the Game Commission.

In order to establish a good stand of grass, there must be adequate ground preparation. Summer fallow is highly recommended, and fall plowing is required if seed is to be furnished by the Game Commission.

In conjunction with the grass-legume seedings, some shrubs and trees are available for clump plantings, borders, and escape cover. A multiflora-rose hedge connecting good nesting cover and food crops will often encourage quail and pheasants to utilize these isolated areas. Border plantings around pools afford excellent cover and add to the beauty of a treated watershed. Putting the final touch on the watershed by the use of good wildlife management practices and by establishing grass-legume seedings and tree and shrub plantings constitute just another step up the conservation ladder.

We have made several steps on this ladder, but we still do not know how far we are from the top. We only know that the way to reach the top is through experimentation and research with different management practices. By employing various procedures in wildlife habitat restoration, we will take another step on the ladder, and by so doing, we hope to increase production for the hunter.

Agriculturally speaking, this state has not yet begun to produce. Nebraska has one of the greatest production potentials in the United States. This may also be true of wildlife. However, we must consider the fact that wildlife has certain requirements for survival. In many cases these can be met through good land use and good wildlife management practices, without causing hardship on our game species or agriculture.

THE END

WANT TO KNOW WHEN YOUR SUBSCRIPTION EXPIRES

All you have to do is turn to the backside of the magazine and check the number to the right of your town and state. Following is an example:

Hunter, Homer 311 Fish Avenue Trapping, Nebraska 98

The number "98" represents the September, 1958 issue. The first number represents the month of year your subscription expires (1 for January, 2 for February, 3 for March, etc.), while the next number represents the year (7 for 1957, 8 for 1958, 9 for 1959, 0 for 1960, 1 for 1961, etc.)

MAIL CALL

A Matter of Where You Enter

Question: Do I have to buy a South Dakota permit to fish in Gavins Point Reservoir?— Melvin Wiese, Omaha.

Answer: You may fish Gavins Point Reservoir with either a Nebraska or South Dakota permit. However, you must hold a permit for the state from which you enter and leave the reservoir. And, a permit holder of one state may not fish from the shore of the other state, although he may fish anywhere on the reservoir itself.

These Are Game Fish

Question: What fish are considered game fish in this state?—Harold G. Cook, Burton.

Answer: According to Nebraska law, the term game fish includes all fish except buffalo, carp, gar, minnow, quillback, sucker, and squaw fish.

How Many Lakes in Stale?

Question: Please tell me the number of lakes and miles of fishing streams and rivers in Nebraska.—Charles D. Rutherford, Des Moines, la.

Answer: Nebraska has approximately 2,300 major lakes, ranging in size from 15 acres and up. These cover a total area of about 163 square miles. Nebraska has more miles of streams and rivers than any other state. Permanent streams in the state total 495 square miles.

Birds And Sanctuaries

Question: What birds are not protected by law, and where in the state are the bird sanctuaries?—Wayne L. Beck, Litchfield.

Answer: Unprotected or nongame birds in Nebraska include the English sparrow, blue jay, crow, Cooper's hawk, sharpshinned hawk, goshawk, European Starling, bronzed grackle, magpie, and great-horned owl. As to sanctuaries, these include all state parks, fish hatcheries, state recreation grounds except during migratory waterfowl season, national monuments, federal refuge areas, Nebraska national forests, Garden County refuge, and the game refuges in Dodge, Saunders, Holt, Boyd, and Lincoln Counties.

Blowout Trouble

Question: I am writing you concerning desirable cover for game birds. My problem, isn't the establishment of a shelterbelt, but rather the planting of groups of shrubby trees where the wind erodes the sand from the hills and leaves what we call "blowouts." Would a thorny type bush be most desirable, in that it need not be fenced permanently from grazing livestock?—Robert Fagan, Grand Island.

Answer: Multiflora rose is the type of plant you could well use, for it does not need permanent protection from grazing livestock. However, I would not expect the rose to be successful in a dry, sandy site without a great deal of special care, which would include artificial watering. It seems possible that the fencing operation you are trying to avoid may be the most practical tool for the control of your erosion, though I hestitate to make recommendations without further knowledge of the situation.

Loaded Rifle in Vehicle

Question: I have checked the 1957-58 Nebraska Game Laws and can find no mention of whether it is legal or illegal to carry a loaded rifle in a car. What is the score?-Ervin L. Grams, Fairbury.

Answer: There is no law prohibiting the carrying of a loaded rifle in a vehicle in Nebraska. The restriction in Nebraska applies to the loaded shotgun.

Nutria Trapped on Missouri

Question: A nutria was recently trapped on the Missouri River near Nebraska City. The trapper thought he had trapped an otter. What are your feelings in regard to this animal?—W. H. Strange, Nebraska City.

Answer: The nutria is not a protected species in Nebraska and hence may be taken at any time. Moreover, we consider it a very undesirable introduction and we recommend its eradication in the wild.

Nutria (or coypu as they are also called) originated in a warm country, and there is some doubt that they can maintain themselves in the wild in a range as cold as Nebraska gets in the wintertime. However, this is an "unknown"; it is possible that this species could adapt itself to our range.

Seining in Private Pond

Question: If my private pond is overpopulated with small fish, can I seine out the surplus fish and give them away?—F. R. Brown, Grand Island.

Answer: State laws make it unlawful for any one except the Nebraska Game, Forestation and Parks Commission to seine in any waters in the state, for any fish except minnows. It is unlawful to have a seine in possession with the exception of a minnow seine which is not over 20 feet long, four feed deep, and of 1/4 inch mesh.

State Fish in Private Lake

Question: If the state stocks a privately owned lake, can I fish in the lake without asking permission of the owner? — Eldon Drake, Lincoln.

Answer: The answer is no. Even though the owner agrees to let the public fish in his privately owned lake, the state law makes it unlawful for anyone to hunt, trap, or fish upon any private property without requesting permission of the owner.

24 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA

Outdoor Elsewhere

Dangerous Assignment

VIRGINIA . . . Richmond City Game Warden Julian Hill recently was faced with a very dangerous assignment. In his 32 years of law enforcement work, he had few situations as rough as this one. A distress call from West Grace Street disclosed a striped skunk unable to remove itself from a garbage can. Both SPCA and Richmond's sanitation department had decided the project wasn't worth the risk. Hill studied the situation and decided the answer lay in a scientific approach whereupon he pumped hydrogen cyanide gas into the can and promptly closed the lid. The skunk, can, and its contents were then quietly removed to the city dump where an end was written to the dangerous assignment.

Seven Million Pleasure Boats

ILLINOIS . . . America's pleasure boat fleet has nearly tripled in the last 10 years and has grown by 345,000 small craft during 1957. Other interesting facts: more than 7 million pleasure boats are now in use in the United States; some 35 million Americans take part in recreational boating annually; there is now one pleasure boat in use for every 24 Americans; there are 3,360,000 outboard boats in use on all American waters; retail expenditures for boating equipment and services in 1957 amounted to more than $1.9 billion.

Courtesy Tags

OHIO . . . Many Ohioans deserve a pat-on-the-back for their efforts to further friendly relations between farmers and sportsmen. One of them is Harold Hessler who manages the sporting goods department in a hardware store. In two years he has handed out 4,000 "courtesy tags." The tags can be separated in the middle by tearing apart along a perforated seam. The hunter carries half of the tag which the farmer signs authorizing him to hunt on his property, and the landowner keeps the other half of the tag signed by the sportsman as written guarantee that the hunter will indemnify any damages he might do to the farmer's property. Hessler says, "The tag makes it a little easier for the sportsman to find a place to hunt."

Telephoning for Fish

TEXAS . . . Despite heavy fines some men still persist in telephoning for fish. Two men paid fines of $100 each in Newton County for shocking the fish with magnetic telephones, according to the law enforcement director of the Game and Fish Commission.

Believe It or Not

MISSOURI . . . Bill Kobert, hotel owner, told this story to Conservation Agent Jesse L. Tartar, and swore it was true: Kobert and his companion had hunted quail all afternoon and Kobert needed one more bird for his limit. They finally gave up and returned to their car where they were sorting the birds. Just then the dogs flushed another covey of quail. The birds flew over the car. One of the birds struck a telephone wire and fell onto Kobert's pile of quail. That's what he said!

Otter Attack

IDAHO . . . Four Salmon, Id., youngsters recently had a startling experience with an otter family. Entering the Salmon River about four miles above town, they started floating the river on rubber inner-tubes. Soon they came to a cave that opened into the river. The boys decided to float inside to see if they could find any salmon. It was rather dark inside, but the lads saw an animal swimming with them. All at once there were five or six animals swimming around and hissing at the boys. It developed the animals were otter. One bit one boy's innertube, and as the boy sank into the water he was bitten on both knees and the arm. Another of the boys pulled him onto his tube. Wildlife authorities believe that the otter making the attack was a mother with her young.

White-Winged Pheasants

IDAHO . . . Five white-winged pheasants from Afghanistan, the only birds of their kind in captivity, so far as is known, are on their way to the Idaho game farm at Carlsbad. Coming from arid habitat, the birds are expected to become acclimated more easily than the Chinese ring-necked pheasants now in the state.

Here, Kitty, Kitty, Kitty

FLORIDA . . . Catfish—and there are more than 1,000 species inhabiting fresh and salt waters throughout the world are a curious breed. They range in size from tiny, two-inch catfish of the Amazon to the quarterton "sheatfish," or "wels," of the Danube and other European rivers. There's a North African catfish which always swims upside down . . . one in the East Indies which is transparent . . . and a vicious parasitic catfish in the Amazon which spends its life in the gill chambers of a larger catfish, chewing at its gill filaments and sucking up blood. There are electric catfish which can discharge a shocking 100 volts, and several kinds which make grunting or humming noises by striking their much divided air bladders with projections from their modified vertebrae. There's even a catfish which can "mew." Strange creatures, these aquatic cats!

Bounties Don't Stop Predators

MICHIGAN . . . This state has paid more than one million dollars in bounties since 1947 in an effort to reduce red fox populations, but the controversial animals probably exist in greater numbers than they did 10 years ago. Ten years of state-wide predator bounties have cost the state almost two million dollars in hunters' license money—without budging the predator from his position in nature.

MARCH, 1958 25

Notes on Nebraska Fauna

Jack Rabbit

by Dick H. Schaffer, editor

ANYWHERE from 25 to 60 cents apiece in Nebraska and up to 75 and 80 cents farther north. That's the reported going-price on a jack rabbit, with buyers for fur farmers doling out the big money. Jacks serve as food for valuable fur bearers, and their fur is used in felting, to make men's hats.

The big ante spurred jack hunting in recent years. Target practice the year-round and meat for the table were reasons enough to popularize the sport, but the added monetary reward has accelerated interest even more. How many jacks are taken annually is not known, but a possible indication is the reported two vans of jack rabbit carcasses trucked out of Cody last year—at one time.

This growing interest in jack rabbits as a sport animal is resulting in a tendency to overharvest the animal in the low of the cycle. Completely unprotected at present, this denizen of the wild can be and is taken at any time, in any manner, and in any number. In fact, present conditions indicate that the jack rabbit should be put on the game list so that harvest can, if necessary, be controlled.

Nebraska is inhabited by two species, the black-tailed jack rabbit (Lepus californicus, nelanolis), and the whitetailed jack rabbit (Lepus lownsendii campanius). The range of the two species overlaps, but the blacktail is the predominant species in most of the state. The whitetail is more numerous across northern Nebraska and in the northeastern corner of the state.

Generally speaking, the jack rabbit is a large hare with very long ears and long, powerful legs built for speed. The body is long, lean, and dull, and the nondescript coat blends well with the surroundings. Total length ranges from 20 to 26 inches, height from 9V2 to 12 inches at the shoulder, and weight from 4 to 8 pounds. Some reach 12 to 14 pounds.

Money-wise, the white-tailed jack rabbit is the big producer of the two species, probably because it is larger and its fur is better. Whitetails weigh six to nine pounds each, occasionally as heavy as 13 and 14 pounds. Their tails are white, though on occasion you may find one with a mixture of black hairs or a blackish middle line on the upper side. Body color is buffy or grayish in summer. Those white-tailed jack rabbits living in the far north are almost pure white in winter; not so in Nebraska, though, as they just become paler during the cold months.

The black-tailed jack rabbit, too, has a white tail, but the upper surface on his is more or less black. Grayish in color, the blacktail weighs four to six pounds, attaining a maximum weight of about 7V2 pounds. This warmth-loving species prefers more southerly regions and arid plains than does cousin whitetail.

As far as ears are concerned, the jack rabbit is in a class by himself, particularly among mammals his own size. His jackass ears are partly responsible for his name. They are covered with fine hair and sometimes are more than a third of the animal's total length. When pursued, the jack's ears turn and twist to catch every sound. They are flattened against the neck and shoulders in time of great speed.

Any track coach would thank his lucky stars if he had an athlete with the prowess and ability of a jack rabbit. Speed-wise, the jack rates second only to the greyhound. With long hind legs and feet striking the ground simultaneously, the jack rabbit can move along at 30 to 35 miles an hour. When really hard put, the jack digs in its toes and runs low to the ground.

Slower runners may offset the jack rabbit's dazzling speed by outwitting him. Some steal up on him while dozing.

As a broad jumper, the versatile jack would likely make a good number of teams. Here, however, the black-tailed jack takes a back seat to the whitetail. While the black-tail may cover the ground in leaps of 15 feet or so, the whitetail may stretch his leaps to 21 feet. In fact, there is record of one whitetail leaping 22 feet four inches.

These long leaps come between two or three short jumps of about five or six feet each. The ordinary running leaps are not more than a couple of feet off the ground. When not hard pressed, the jack leaps higher every fourth or fifth bound to check on his pursuer. Height of this jump depends on the type of cover. It may be only a little higher than the rest of the bounds; then again, it may be as much as four feet—whatever is necessary to clear high bushes or tall grasses. These are called his observation or "spy" hops.

Probably one of the best high-jumping jack rabbits was the one reported in western South Dakota. Startled by a speeding car, the big whitetail started racing down the roadside, then tried to leap across the road in front of the car. The leaping jack cleared the hood but crashed through the windshield. Spurred by fear, the rabbit had jumped almost 4V2 feet, high enough to win some high school meets.

The jack rabbit is a peculiar cuss. Sometimes he may bolt while the enemy is still quite distant. Other times, he may sit tight until the enemy almost steps on him. This is particularly true of whitetails. Even though he doesn't explode until the last minute, he is hard to tag, for his bounding gait makes him an erratic and difficult target even for the best of shooters.

In addition to man, the jack rabbit has many enemies, foremost of which is the coyote. In New Mexico, research has shown that 55 per cent of the coyote diet is composed of jack rabbits and cottontails. Studies in Nebraska showed that jack rabbits make up 13.3 per cent of the stomach contents of 750 coyotes. Additional studies identified this hare in 5.1 per cent of 2,500 coyote scats.

Other predators include the bobcat, fox, rattlesnake, bullsnake, eagle, greathorned owl, red-tailed and rough-legged hawk. Then, too, there are lesser but potent enemies such as fleas, lice, and ticks.

Jack rabbits will inhabit almost any area in the West, provided grass is plentiful. Shrubbery that is too dense, 26 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   however, is avoided because it is a handicap to the jack's defense—speed. A circle of two miles diameter is probably enough range for all ordinary purposes.

Fond of alfalfa, clover, and irrigated grasses, jack rabbits will travel far to feed on them. They have hearty appetites, possibly because their food digests so rapidly and they must eat almost constantly to keep their stomachs full. They nibble away almost continuously from late afternoon until they retire the following morning.

As long as grass and herbs are available, the jack rabbit lives on them to the exclusion of other growth. As far as water is concerned, the jack pays little heed. He seldom drinks. Much of his moisture intake comes from succulent vegetation.

Jack rabbits never dig earth shelters more pretentious than open forms a few inches deep. These are made by the animal twisting and scratching about, sometimes completely in the open. Resting in such a form, the jack's ear are laid on his shoulders and he is almost invisible to the eye. If hard pressed by an enemy, though, the jack will take shelter elsewhere, possibly in an abandoned burrow.

More digging is done, however, at maternity time. This may be any time from early spring to midsummer. The expectant mother often digs a bowl in the earth, usually under an overhanging bush or thick grass. Oval in outline, the nest is four to nine inches across and may be as much as eight inches deep. It is lined with fur from the mother's own coat.

There may be one to several litters each year. Black-tailed jack rabbits may have up to six young at birth, white-tailed jacks up to eight. The young are born with mottled brownish-gray fur and wide-open eyes. No one knows exactly when they leave the nest, but it is early in their young lives. Adult stature is reached in about two months.

Jack rabbits are one of the cyclic mammals—their numbers fluctuate in cycles of five to 10 years. When they're up, they are extremely numerous. And when they're numerous, they sometimes raise havoc with farmers' crops. But in reasonable numbers, they are an asset as they serve as food for valuable fur bearers and as a buffer species between game birds, poultry, livestock, and their predatory enemies.

Jack rabbits are on a downward trend in Nebraska at present, but still plentiful enough to provide good hunting, and some nice extra cash on the side.

THE END MARCH 1958 27

FISH I.Q.

Write in the name of each fish. Check your answer below.

1.Brook trout 2.Smallmouth bass 3.Sauger 4.White crappie 5.Channel catfish BULK RATE U. S. POSTAGE PAID Lincoln, Nebr. Permit No. 694

Postmaster: If undeliverable FOR ANY REASON, notify sender, stating reason, on FORM 3547, postage for which is guaranteed.

FORWARDING POSTAGE GUARANTEED OUTDOOR NEBRASKA STATE HOUSE Lincoln, Nebraska