EDITORIAL: Things have Changed

FIVE YEARS of service as a commissioner of the Nebraska Game, Forestation and Parks Commission has been an enriching experience for me. I hope it has been equally as valuable to the state and to the sportsmen who contribute the bulk of the funds administered by this department.

As I have noted in these columns before, Nebraska is rich in natural beauties and attractions. The Cornhusker state has developed into one of the leading hunting and fishing spots in the nation. A short five years ago when I first became a member of the Commission, it would have been unthinkable to consider a deer season offering more than five thousand permits. No thought whatsoever was given to an antelope season. Yet, the intervening years have provided us with sufficient animal population to justify these legal harvests.

The responsibilities of the department have multiplied with these developments. Another factor in hiking the work load of the department is the tremendously increased fishing pressure, occasioned principally by the creation of vast man-made lakes. The revenues of the department have increased in proportion to these recreational expansions—and the responsibilities of the department's key personnel also have been greatly hiked.

The operation of this department now qualifies as a business of major proportions and it is necessary that businesslike administration be maintained. I think that the department's record in this regard could stand the closest scrutiny. Continual emphasis has been placed on efficiency and economy, with the end objective of preserving every possible dollar for the propagation of more fish and game for the sportsmen of the state.

If a retiring commissioner could or should pass along a word of advice to his successors it would be this:

"Give the closest study to the expenditure of every dollar; remember that it is the obligation of the Commission to provide as much hunting and fishing as possible in conformance with sound conservation practices; keep everlastingly at the task of producing more fish and game because this is the primary purpose of the department; do not yield to pressures or criticisms but, at the same time, keep an open mind on all controversial subjects involving the expending of monies under your control."

Serving on this Commission is a privilege. In my case it has enabled me to know Nebraska better. It has made it possible to meet wonderful people and to associate in the field with good sportsmen who will be lifelong friends. I still retain the warmest affection for those who have been quite critical of Commission action and policy. In virtually every case, I have found, the critic has been motivated by sincere purposes and beliefs.

I am glad to have this opportunity to extend my appreciation to the members of the department for their splendid cooperation. I cherish the friendships I have made with them. I am positive that Nebraska has one of the outstanding departments in the nation; I am confident that the Nebraska sportsman is getting maximum return on his hunting and fishing dollar.

In the final analysis, that is the real measure of service from the department.

WILFLIFE AND THE SOIL

WE LEARNED early in our biology courses at school that wildlife is dependent on plants for food and cover and thus is indirectly dependent on soil for existence. However, we do not often stop and think that soils are also dependent on wildlife. There is a very close relationship between plants, animals, and soils, which must be given consideration both in soil conservation and in wildlife management.

First, let us consider how wildlife affects the soil. In order to do this, we must define wildlife. For this discussion, wildlife will include both vertebrates and invertebrates. The vertebrates include the amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, or those animals with backbones which live either in or on the soil. The invertebrates are animals without backbones such as worms, insects and spiders. Although not frequently seen, they are very numerous either in or on the soil.

The invertebrate animals are very important in the formation or buildng of soil. There are an enormous number of small one or few-celled microscopic animals present in the soil. These aid materially in the breaking down of mineral and plant materials which help to produce soils that are friable, porous, and easily tilled. Although we will not discuss these, it is important to remember that their presence is necessary in the formation of soil which supports the food crops and grasses for man and his livestock.

Let us now turn to the larger invertebrates such as insects and worms. McAtee found over 1,200,000 invertebrates per acre in forest soils and 13,500,000 per acre of meadow land.

One of the animals that is especially important to soil building is the earthworm. We have often seen the tiny holes, small mounds of soil, and the tracks earthworms leave on the slick surface of the soil after a rain. The number of earthworms in certain soils is enormous. Darwin found that there were as many as 54,000 earthworms in an acre of soil. The weight of these animals has been estimated to be as much as 200 to 1,000 pounds per acre. It has also been estimated that earthworms bring as much as 10 tons of soil per acre to the surface in a year. They are especially valuable in mixing the soil and carrying plant materials into it to form humus which makes the soil porous so air and water can enter.

Insects are also important in soil formation. Ninety-five percent of all insects spend a part of their lives in the soil. Many of them tunnel in the soil like the earthworm. The addition of the bodies of these invertebrate animals is important in building up the organic content of the soil.

Students of soil-animal relationships agree that the invertebrates and their activities are definitely beneficial to the soil by:

1. The mixing or interchange of soil which is equivalent to cultivation. 2. The separation or loosening of the soil which results in better drainage. 3.* The aeration of the soil by tunneling   and working the soil. 4. The addition and distribution of organic matter in the soil.

The vertebrate animals influence the soil in four ways: (1) manuring, (2) trampling, (3) mixing, and (4) channeling.

Many of the smaller mammals take shelter and nest in the soil. For this purpose they excavate dens. The best known soil diggers are ground squirrels, pocket gophers, moles, woodchucks, chipmunks, badgers, foxes, and coyotes. In their diggings, these animals throw mineral soil over the top-soil and incorporate leaves and plant material into the subsoil. They also cover seeds of plants so they will germinate. Woodchucks may at times make burrows up to as much as 25 feet in length. Some animals, like the skunk, in searching for insects, dig holes in the ground. The tree squirrel digs holes in the ground to store food. Many of the acorns, seeds, and nuts buried are never recovered. Thus squirrels aid in the distribution of many plants.

The moles and pocket gophers live underground and do a great deal of tunneling and mixing of soil.

It has been estimated that pocket gophers will mix more soil in five months than earthworms will in five years. Pocket gophers have literally been plowing the soil for hundreds of thousands of years. At times they become too numerous in cropland and must be controlled.

Beaver are very important in building soil. Many mountain meadows can be attributed to soil built up through an accumulation of silt which followed the construction of dams by the beaver to hold water. These dams also aid in subirrigating meadowlands below the dams. The present day assistance of beaver in soil conservation work is well known. Not many years ago beaver were still being transplanted to assist in soil conserving work in streams.

In general the presence and activities of all animals in the soil assist materially in mixing, loosening, aerating, draining, and fertilizing the soil. By these processes they produce increased vegetative growth, and by combining all these factors promote conservation of soil.

Wildlife is also dependent on soil for its existence. Some species are directly dependent on soils for nesting sites and a place to raise their young. All are indirectly dependent on soil for food and cover which they receive from the vegetation on the soil. The vegetation may be grass, crops, trees, shrubs, or weeds.

The animals that live in the water are indirectly dependent on the soil of the drainage area. The food in a pond, lake, or stream is produced from nutrients in the water which runs off the land. Some ponds are fertile and produce large crops of fish, other ponds are low in fertility and produce only a few pounds of edible fish per acre. Where the runoff is from fertile land, the pond will be more productive than where runoff is from badly eroded land. The amount of soil or silt carried into the pond is also important. On drainages which have a serious erosion problem, the silt entering the pond keeps the water in a muddy condition. In these ponds no fish food is produced and the fish do not grow. In such areas, a complete conservation program must be applied to the drainage area before a successful fish pond can be established.

Fertility of soil is important in determining the growth and size of wildlife species. In the neighboring state of Missouri the size of raccoons was found to vary considerably over the state. Raccoons were collected from all parts of the state. The average weight varied from 12 pounds in one county in the southeastern part of the state to 18.4 pounds in another county in the northwestern part of the state. The reason for the variation was apparent when the weights of the animals were correlated with the fertility ratings of the soil for the various localities. The heaviest animals, both male and female, were from areas having soils with the highest fertility.

The influence of soil was also shown in the number of raccoons taken in different localities. Here, it must be remembered that the most fertile soils

Those DARN GAME WARDENS!

THOSE DARN game wardens or conservation officers, whatever you want to call them; they're brutes, each and everyone of them. They just lurk in the dark or hide behind a tree, gloating and scheming for the chance to nab one of us. They're all arrest hungry. But you can't blame them. The more arrests they make, the higher their pay.

This erroneous and ridiculous conception of game wardens, though waning in popularity with the passing of each year, is still relatively common, not only in Nebraska, but also in other states. Largely responsible for this fallacy are the perpetual violators, though constituting but a minority of the sportsmen, who disseminate tainted propaganda as a weapon to counteract damage inflicted upon them by the intrusion and interference of game wardens performing their duty.

Still other but more minor causes for such unfounded allegations are misunderstanding, lack of information, ill-advice and misinterpretation on behalf of the sportsmen which oftentimes and unfortunately result in violations necessitating prosecution. A sportsman has no one but himself to blame if he partakes in some infraction on the basis of what someone told him he thought was right. It is up to each individual, when in doubt, to seek the correct answer from the source—this being the Game Commission and its representatives, the game wardens.

Game wardens are normal human beings. They're not jut-jawed monsters laden with hatred and spite in their hearts, nor are they outcasts who can't get other jobs nor do they nourish themselves upon the number of people who they make miserable.

Instead, the officers are like you and I. They put on their shoes one at a time—on stocking covered feet. They go to bed at night (sometimes after the stars begin to retire) and rise in the morning. Some of them have wives. And—quite a few even have children.

It is admitted that one of their most important assignments is that of enforcing the game laws of the state which oftentimes requires making arrests. Winter issue 5   But, they are neither rated or paid in accordance with the number of arrests they make. In fact, the average warden will boast about the number of cases he prevented.

Wardens may work out of uniform when recognition might handicap the completion of a major case. However, such officers cannot and will not assume false identities, make illegal purchases or in any other way bring about entrapment of a suspect by such measures. The Game Commission frowns upon undercover tactics.

About the only differences between a game warden (or conservation officer, this being the more recent name attached to that position) and you and I are: (1) he knows considerably more about wildlife and conservation, and (2) he is employed by the Game Commission to serve in that capacity. He has his assignments as does a doctor, a grocer, a teacher or a plumber. The warden, like those people in other professions, has certain obligations to fulfill.

Nebraska's conservation officers, of which there are only 29, not 50, 100 or 150 as is sometimes believed, are by statutory law, officers of the state with the powers of sheriffs, authorized to make arrests and serve all writs and processes, civil and criminal, when they have reason to believe a violation has been committed.

The game laws they are assigned to enforce are the expressed opinion of you, I and other sportsmen through our state legislature. If we are in disagreement with some laws and their intent, it is our duty and obligation to present our feelings and opinions to the law-making body, not to take it out on a conservation officer and later cuss and discuss him.

Representatives of the law enforcement division of the Game Commission are outstanding men in their field. They are very carefully selected and are the "good fruit of the crop." The last four officers named by the Game Commission were picked from a field of almost fifty applicants.

To become a warden, a person has to be between 25 and 40 years of age, be at least 5-foot, 10-inches in height and possess better than average intelligence. He must be of good moral character, emotionally stable, resourceful, tactful, alert and well developed physically.

He must be a salesman and a leader; he must know the law, the public's rights and his own rights. He must be trained in all policies and programs of the Game Commission.

Qualifications and expectations are diversified. Curtis S. Allin, regional supervisor of law enforcement for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at Boston, Mass., lists the following qualifications for a warden.

"A game warden must be—

"A biologist which would make him a botanist and zoologist as he must know something of the origin, structure, functions and life history of vegetable and animal organisms.

"An anthropologist, as he must study the science and history of the human race.

"An entomologist, as he will be combating friendly insects, including the mosquito, tick, chigger and others.

"A mammalogist, as his dealings will be with wild as well as domestic animals.

"An ornithologist, as birds will comprise a special study for him.

"Ichthyologist, branching out in his zoology in knowing his fish.

"Capable of filling some of the less technical positions such as policeman as he must arrest violators that he observes infringing on game and fish laws.

"An attorney, for he must prepare and handle his cases in court.

"A sprinter, as he will be forced to run down many a violator.

"An orator, as he will be called upon to deliver speeches before many organizations.

"A school teacher, as much time will be spent in schools and before youth groups explaining the why's and wherefore's of conservation.

"A doctor, as he will be called on numerous times to act in emergencies, using his training in life saving and first aid.

"A diplomat, to keep the department out of hot water as well as himself.

"A guide, as many times he will be called upon to visit remote districts and find his way back to his car or boat.

"A salesman—he is in most cases the sole representative of his department in his district; therefore, on his shoulder rests the responsibility of selling himself and his department's program to the local citizens.

"A preacher—his doctrine will fit into any creed or religion as his sermon should be delivered seven days each week, from the creek bank to the temple. His theme song is 'Let us play the game fair and save some seed for another year.' "

Last, but not least, Mr. Allin said a game warden should be a banker for if he can stretch that pay check far enough to meet all expenses, he can qualify as an expert.

Conservation officers are required to enforce game laws. When an angler or hunter is observed committing a violation, the warden has no alternative but to make an arrest. Officers do not relish making arrests, but do so only because of absolute necessity. The sportsman is given the benefit of the doubt. This is reflected in last year's arrest record which shows that 98 per cent of all arrests resulted in conviction. There were no borderline cases.

Arrests are continuing to increase each year, not drastically but steadily. The Game Commission's fondest aspiration is that of reporting a decrease in the number of arrests even though the hunting and fishing population grows. Once this becomes a reality, the department can reduce its spending for law enforcement activities.

Numerous programs are being carried out in an effort to achieve that goal. One and probably the most important of these is the Game Commission's preventive program which, as its name applies, strives to prevent violations. This is being presented through an organized program of education and by preventive action in the field.

In the education phase of the program, Nebraska conservation officers appear frequently before any and all groups—youth and adult; school, civic, sportsman and religious alike—to teach the benefits of wildlife conservation and to appeal to their sense of fair play. The second phase of the preventive program takes the officers out into the field. There are numerous sportsmen—and you might possibly be one of them—who are indebted to some

AN EMPTY SACK Won't Stand

MANY years ago when I was a boy living down on Turkey Creek in Fillmore County, we had a neighbor who was fond of backing up any argument he set forth with some sort of saying. One of his favorites was: "An empty sack won't stand." If I listen real hard, I can almost hear again his heavy, decisive voice putting the finishing touches to an argument in this fashion: "You see, fellows, it's a lot like this—'an empty sack won't stand.' "

Come to think about it, that is a good reason for having conservation education in our schools. All of us live from the soil; it is our country's most valuable resource. What we amount to as a great people today and what we shall amount to in the future rests on the sustained productivity of our land. If we allow this basic resource to be wasted away, certainly our nation, like the empty sack, will not stand.

This we believe then in the Nebraska Department of Public Instruction—that one of the most important parts of the schooling of our boys and girls concerns the wise use of the soil and other natural resources. This education is for everyone. It is not for just a segment of our population. One of the most disappointing remarks I ever heard came to me after I had addressed a group on the importance of conservation education. After the talk one of my listeners said to me, "Yes, I realize that conservation education is important for the boys and girls living on farms, but I can't see that school children living in cities and towns need it." It had not occurred to this person that the young people in towns and cities live from the land just as surely as country folks do and that they, therefore, must have a concern for the productivity of that which sustains their very lives. It had not occurred to this person either that young people living in towns and cities, even though they never come to own a single acre of land, will nevertheless be voters some day; as such, they will have a citizen's responsibility for having an intelligent voice in the kind of government that seeks to safeguard the interests of all the people through appropriate conservation measures. So I repeat that conservation education is for everyone, no matter where he lives or whether or not he owns an acre of land.

Many schools in Nebraska have developed what I choose to call the "conservation conscience." Few things are WINTER ISSUE 7   more gratifying to us here in the department than to have reports come in from teachers and county and city superintendents which tell us that boys and girls are being given the opportunity to develop skills, understandings and wholesome attitudes with respect to the wise use of our natural resources. For example, one county superintendent reported that the pupils in her county were becoming familiar with conservation practices in the community through field trips and the explanatory assistance of local conservation officials. One city school reported recently of itsN:onservation field day. On this occasion students were given a first-hand knowledge of wildlife conservation with the able assistance of the Nebraska Game, Forestation and Parks Commission.

A county superintendent from the central part of Nebraska stated that pupils were collecting news articles on conservation to be used in displays, scrap books and language arts activities; performing science experiments to show cause, effect and prevention of erosion; studying films and film strips on conservation; planting trees, shrubs and gardens on the school grounds; and preparing creative drawings and posters in connection with the art program to illustrate erosion and ways of combatting it.

The pupils in one school planned and carried out sandtable projects illustrating wise land use and water control. They also performed simple conservation practices on the school yard itself. Ordinarily, our schools are not teaching conservation as a special subject; they are integrating it with the existing program. In other words, pupils are solving problems related to conservation in their arithmetic program; they are reading, speaking and writing about conservation in the language, arts or English program; they are doing creative drawings, paintings and posters with conservation themes in the art program; they are studying the social importance of conservation in the social studies program; they are performing experiments related to soil, water and other natural resources in the science program.

It is our feeling that interest and activity in conservation education has never been greater in Nebraska schools than at the present time. In those schools where adequate conservation programs are maintained, teachers and administrators are usually alert to the fact that we have in our United States at the present time only about 460,000,000 acres of top-notch crop land. This, we agree, sounds like a great deal of land until we learn that, with today's population of more than 150,000,000 people, each person's share of land is approximately three acres. And what is happening to this three acres? About half of it is being damaged by erosion. The situation is made a little more frightening when we learn that the population in America has increased 100 per cent during the last fifty years. Once upon a time, we Americans had custody of 1,800,000,000 acres of land, over half of which was suitable for croplands, pasture, or range. When we consider the difference in today's picture, we can, indeed, be grateful when we have teachers in our schools who have a genuine concern for generating in the minds of our young people the kind of thinking about conservation which will cause them to be faithful and competent custodians of the land when they are grown men and women.

With matters of such weighty importance as conservation education, there is always room for improvement. Unfortunately, there are schools in which the program is sadly neglected. Not infrequently in such situations there is a lack of suitable instructional materials in conservation, and the lack of that feeling of need on the part of teachers for educating our young people concerning the wise use of natural resources. It is largely for this reason that the Department of Public Instruction is taking steps to help teacher-education institutions in improving their programs to the end that teachers in training will be more thoroughly grounded in conservation principles and methodology. This, we feel, is a basic approach to the improvement of conservation education in both our elementary and secondary schools.

It is folly to think that we shall ever do justice to this phase of education if too many of our teachers do not gain a reasonable knowledge of subject matter, and if they fail to be impressed with both the need for conservation and the methods whereby they may instill in our young people right thinking and right acting in this regard. We need always to remember that to impart understandings with respect to the wise use of our natural resources is not enough; there must be developed in the hearts of our young people the will to do something about such problems. Obviously, the task of the teacher is not an easy one. It seems well to state at this point that school officials and lay people be ever aware of the importance of having the highest type of personnel possible enter the teaching profession, and requiring of them college training which is of the quality and length needed to produce a really good teacher. How else will the important work of our schools be done as it should be done?

An additional service of the department in its efforts to improve conservation education has been concerned with helping schools acquire worthwhile instructional materials. During the past two years, more than 60,000 copies of seven different items of instruction materials for pupils in all grades have been distributed by the department. In addition, the department has assembled five different bibliographies 8 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   for schools whereby they are enabled to choose selected books for their libraries, and to acquire hundreds of instructional helps free of charge from various sources. These include numerous films and film strips on conservation which the schools can obtain merely by paying postage for transportation.

In fostering conservation education, the department has also given careful attention to incorporating conservation outlines in the basic courses of study prepared for the regular school program. Such outlines, which include specific methods for teachers, have been prepared in the areas of health and safety, as well as in the conservation of natural resources. Health education and safety education, we need to remember, are also forms of conservation—namely, the conservation of human resources.

Other services of the department relative to the improvement of conservation education programs include—

1. Assisting at teacher institutes and meetings of county education associations;

2. Providing consultative services to county and city superintendents;

3. Advising with textbook publishers concerning ways and means whereby the matter of conservation education is given more adequate treatment in the textbooks which pupils use;

4. Providing guidance in the Nebraska Education News with respect to the teaching of conservation education. The Education News is the Nebraska teachers' professional newspaper.

It is not only teachers and other school officials who need to be concerned about the purposes of the various parts of the school program. Lay people of the community need also to be concerned. Just what are some of the "things we are after" in education concerning the conservation of natural resources? Of course, we want, insofar as it is possible, to develop skills in conservation practices and we feel it highly important to help our young people come to understand principles or practices essential to conservation. A good school program will also help young people to learn concretely of the material gains that can be expected if our natural resources are well cared for. Wise teachers, however, will carefully temper the latter because they sense the importance of helping our young people grow into men and women whose lives are not motivated and dominated simply by materialism.

A good school wants more than anything else to provide a conservation education program that will teach children to appreciate the fruits of the earth and to love the land — to look upon it as a gift to nurture and cherish. Nothing is more gratifying to a teacher than the feeling that she has kindled a spirit of gratitude in the heart of a child—a spirit of thanksgiving for the gift of the land upon which he is dependent for his very life. In this connection, it is important to point out that we view the conservation program as having a high potential in contributing to citizenship education. Conservation may be viewed as a "desirable way of living." It is a good teacher's dream, and the answer to a good parent's prayer, to see boys and girls grow up to be men and women who respect the rights and property of others, who cherish the land and are grateful for the fruits of the earth, who respect their bodies for the spiritual temples which they are, who "think of the other fellow," whether he be the driver coming toward them on the highway, or the person who will be the next one to use their farm for gaining a livelihood. All of these qualities and many others can be outcomes of a well-planned conservation program. In truth, those of us who are seeking to build good citizens in our schools look upon conservation education as an important avenue to character development.

In conclusion, may I state that since the purpose to use our resources wisely is borne in the minds of men, our schools — the elementary, the high school and the college—must make continued effort to improve their conservation education programs. It must be remembered that no approach to the problem of wise use of resources will be durable and long-range unless it results in the development of an enlightened citizenry. Our young people must develop a sensitivity to the misuse of our resources. They must, moreover, acquire the needed knowledge upon which they may draw in seeking solutions to the problem of proper resource use and maintenance basically. The young folks of today must develop self-discipline and so be willing to make choices in the light of their moral and social responsibilities rather than in terms of selfish gain; in this way they may demonstrate the kind of everyday living with their neighbors that is based upon principles of justice and charity. It is only through living according to these principles that human, as well as natural resources, will be delivered from chaos.

ICE FISHERMEN TAKE NOTE...

Don't drive your car out on to the ice unless you are positive it is thick enough. Better yet, leave the car on the bank so there will be no chance to duplicate this scene which took place in the sand hills.

OUTDOOR NEBRASKA Goes INDOOR

A "HALL of Nebraska Wildlife" is now taking form at the University of Nebraska State Museum which, when completed, will include 16 three-dimensional, life-size exhibits depicting the natural wildlife and picturesque landscapes of the State. Already three exhibits have been opened to the public and two additional ones are nearing completion. The habitat groups, as the displays are called, are exact reproductions of scenes showing the animals in their natural surroundings. When the project is completed, Nebraskans as well as visitors from other states and foreign countries, will have the opportunity to see what a real variety of animal and plant life there is to be found in our large and beautiful state. Too many people, even our own citizens, visualize Nebraska as a flat, uninteresting place as far as landscapes and wildlife are concerned. The Museum's new wildlife hall will do much to correct this misconception and will encourage many people to learn more about Nebraska's wildlife resources.

The "Hall of Nebraska Wildlife" is located on the lower floor of Morrill Hall, 14th and U Streets, Lincoln, and eventually will occupy a space of 140 by 45 feet. The natural habitat groups are in glassed-in cases ranging in size from 10 feet long and 6 feet wide to 20 feet long and 12 feet wide. The exhibition cases are being placed in a winding corridor or "maze" so that the visitor's attention will be directed to only one case at a time. The University of Nebraska was the first to use this modern, educational method in showing habitat groups. This replaces the standard type of exhibit with long, straight rows of museum cases which encourage the visitor to hurry on to see the next display. The walls of the corridor are painted green and the cases are framed in gray. The color scheme, 10 OUTDOOR NEBRASKA   the maze-type arrangement of the cases, and the sloping glass fronts all contribute to the minimum amount of reflection — a problem that always plagues museums.

The construction of the "Hall of Nebraska Wildlife" is a large undertaking and will take a number of years to complete. Except for the first experimental group, all of the wildlife units are being financed by donations made to the University of Nebraska Foundation for this purpose. The largest contributor thus far has been the Cooper Foundation which has provided funds for the large pronghorn antelope, as well as the smaller fox and beaver groups. Professor David D. Whitney, former chairman of the Department of Zoology, was the first to contribute when he financed the whooping crane habitat. It is hoped that others will be interested in helping push the project to completion.

1. BOBCAT, a late spring scene with bobcat on a rocky pine-covered hillside in western Nebraska. The observer looks to the north across Pumpkin Creek valley to the Wildcat Rrange where Hog Back and Wildcat mountains stand out prominently on the horizon. This was an experimental group financed by the University.

2. WHOOPING CRANES, an early spring scene in typical Nebraska sandhill lake country. Two adult cranes and one immature brown one are used in the foreground. The cranes are from the museum collection and were obtained many years ago. August Eiche and the late H. H. Harley donated two of the cranes, and Professor David D. Whitney provided funds for the construction of the group.

The exhibit is of much interest to the public at the present time because of all the publicity whooping cranes have received recently in connection with their near extinction. Each year hunters take their toll of these beautiful birds, and today there are only 21 in existence. This exhibit will be used in teaching conservation of our wildlife.

3. PRONGHORN ANTELOPE, an early summer scene with two adult pronghorns, a yearling and two kids, on the southern slope of Pine Ridge, north of Marsland in Dawes County, Nebraska. This group was financed by the Cooper Foundation.

4. RED FOX, a fall scene with two foxes hunting in the wooded hills along the Missouri River near Plattsmouth and Nebraska City. The Nebraska autumn colors in all their glory are shown in the painted background as well as in the three dimensional foreground. The fox habitat, also financed by the Cooper Foundation, is nearly completed and will be opened to the public shortly.

5. BEAVER GROUP, a fall scene along the Platte River south of Grand Island. Cottonwoods, a family of beavers, and a beaver dam will be featured in this exhibit. The Cooper Foundation also provided funds for the beaver group, which is now under construction.

Other groups to be constructed include:

1. WHITE-TAILED DEER, along the Missouri River bluffs in south-eastern Nebraska.

2. BISON, in the Little Blue valley of south-central Nebraska.

3. SKUNK, in the Elkhorn River valley in north-eastern Nebraska.

4. BLUE HERON, in the Missouri River valley of eastern Nebraska.

5. MULE DEER, in the White River valley at the foot of Pine Ridge, northwestern Nebraska.

6. PRAIRIE CHICKEN or GROUSE, in the Middle Loup River valley of north-central Nebraska.

7. RACCOON, in the Republican River valley of southern Nebraska.

8. WATER FOWL (Duck and Goose), in the North Platte River valley of western Nebraska.

9. PRAIRIE DOG TOWN, in the WINTER ISSUE 11   Frenchman Creek valley of southwestern Nebraska.

10. COYOTE, in the South Platte River valley of western Nebraska.

11. WAPITI (or Elk), in the Niobrara River valley of north-central Nebraska.

The work of planning and constructing the wildlife exhibits is carried on by various members of the Museum staff. The curators of botany, zoology, entomology, and geology all contribute to the project. The exhibits must be scientifically accurate and in exact detail down to the smallest rock or blade of grass, since the groups will be used in teaching as well as for general display. The plants and animals must be collected from a definite limited area and in association with each other. Even the geological formations must appear as they do in nature. Nathan Mohler, Museum staff artist, painted the background in the bobcat group and has prepared the foreground material in the remaining groups. Miss Iris Daugherty painted the backgrounds for the whooping crane, the pronghorn antelope, the red fox, and the beaver groups. Mr. James Carmel prepared the foreground in the bobcat exhibit. Contrary to the modern trends in art, the Museum's artists have been interested only in achieving realism. The mammals have all been mounted by Jonas Brothers, the internationally-known taxidermists of Denver, Colorado. Henry Reider, chief preparator in the Museum, has aided in the construction of the foregrounds and in the collecting of specimens for the displays. Dr. John Davidson, professor of botany at the University and Curator of the Museum's Herbarium, supervised the collecting of the plants used for the exhibits.. Mr. Paul Gilbert, executive secretary of the Game, Forestation and Parks Commission, has provided valuable counsel in the planning of the Hall, and Conservation Officers George Weidman and Leon Cunningham have cooperated with the Museum staff in obtaining the necessary animals for the exhibits.

The University of Nebraska State Museum has long been noted for its exhibits of Nebraska fossils, and the new displays will provide the counterpart of the modern animals. The Hall of Nebraska Wildlife will add to the educational value of the Museum to its regular visitors as well as to the tens of thousand of students from the schools of Nebraska and adjacent states who annually are guided through Morrill Hall.

Did You Know?

Last bighorn sheep reported killed in Nebraska was taken in about 1888 in the Scottsbluff country. The head and horns of that bighorn weighed 47 pounds. Bighorns were native to Nebraska. . . .

Central Nebraska was once considered good elk hunting territory. This was in the 1800's. One historical report said a herd estimated at 300 elk was seen near Ord in 1875. . . .

''Killed two deer, three bear, one turkey and one rabbit on Fair Sun Island." Island now called Sun Island which is located between Peru and Brownsville. Hunting results reported in journal of John C. Luttig who in 1812 and 1813 went on a fur-trading expedition on the Upper Missouri river. . . .

The otter at one time was an important fur-bearing animal in Nebraska. It is now extinct in this state. Otters are probably the best swimmers of all our land mammals and look like a small seal or large weasel. Their favorite pastime is sliding down steep banks. . . .

WHAT'S ON THE MENU FOR NEBRASKA DEER?

THE deer season is over for another year and much of the aftermath is confined to devouring the venison and retelling details of the hunt. But here in the laboratory, it is somewhat different. There is a characteristic horse-barn odor that prevails for a short period following each deer season. The odors that have been cleared out at the end of the day are replenished again each morning until the last of the deer stomachs have been analyzed—for the food contents. By the time all of the odors have faded away, a number of interesting facts have been recorded.

Did you know that deer are principally browsers and not grazers?

By that, we mean they feed mostly on twig tips, leaves, and fruits of woody plants (trees, shrubs and vines) and non-grassy herbs. However, when grass is first greening up in spring and early summer, it is taken in important amounts. In our northwestern counties, most of the habitat is bordered by cropland or has islands or fingers of cultivated land jutting into timber, thus making cultivated crops readily available to the deer. In December, when most of the stomachs (that this article is based on) have been taken, agricultural crops have been important in the deer's diet.

That corn is not the most important single food plant will be a surprise to some. Buckbrush, sometimes called wolf berry or coral berry is the most important single winter food plant. It is closely followed by corn. Green winter wheat and alfalfa are also preferred winter foods. This is particularly true of the does. Sugar beets and the beet tops are fairly important foods in the irrigated portion of the Platte Valley. Agricultural products (including residues left in the harvested fields) have comprised about 38 to 48 per cent of the bulk of the food from the stomachs examined. This percentage varies somewhat from year to year.

Woody plants (excluding pine and cedar) include many species and comprise 22 to 28 per cent of their food; buckbrush, wild rose, Cottonwood, elms, and willows being the most important. Wild rose is a preferred food in the fall just prior to December. Buckbrush consumption, though our most important winter food for the region as a whole, appears, to be considerably reduced in years of poor fruit production. These hardwoods are important in keeping the deer herd healthy and thriving.

Pine is important in the Pine Ridge portion of the range. Primarily the needles are eaten and they make up about one-fifth of the total volume of food from this area.

Yucca (also known as soapweed or Spanish bayonet) is taken in considerable amounts—amounting to a little over 10 per cent over the years. Weedy plants are found in most of the stomachs but in lesser amounts. Grasses in December amount to less than 1 per cent by volume.

Wildlife and the Soil

are also the most extensively cultivated which destroys raccoon habitat and consequently reduces populations. The largest population of raccoons was from localities where fertility was fairly high, but cultivation had not removed too much cover. The fewest raccoons and the smallest animals came from regions of lowest fertility, in spite of the fact that the amount of forest cover and permanent water was greater here than in other areas.

According to the study, soil fertility also has a bearing on the quality of fur developed by muskrats. Muskrat pelts were collected from five different streams. Pelts from each stream were graded and kept together. The pelts were then correlated with fertility ratings of the drainage areas from which they were taken. A definite relationship was apparent—streams ranking highest in fertility produced larger and better quality pelts while those of low fertility ratings produced smaller and inferior pelts.

The growth of cottontail rabbits is also influenced by soil fertility. Cottontails collected from 38 different soil types were measured for size, weight, and mineral content of femur bones. The bones from high fertility areas were larger, stronger, and heavier than those from medium to low fertility.

The following facts regarding rabbit populations and soil regions were revealed:

1. The poorest land supported both the smallest rabbits and the lowest population densities.

2. The richest soils produced the largest rabbits.

3. Intensive cultivation of the most fertile regions reduced the available cover, and soils of medium fertility with less cultivation produced the largest populations.

In several states the average size of litters of fox squirrels has been found to be half an animal larger in areas of fertile soil than those produced in areas of poor soil.

Refuge personnel have observed that 90% of the female deer three years old or over on one management unit in the Ozarks were producing twin fawns. On an adjacent area of privately owned land, only 40% of similar aged does were equally productive. The difference in production of the two areas was attributed to the fact that management plans for the refuge had included numerous soil-building practices including fertilization.

It is evident that there is a close relationship between soils and the size and abundance of wildlife species. By applying soil conservation practices to improve the soil and prevent soil erosion, we also improve the environment or habitat for wildlife. Wildlife conservation and soil conservation go together. Likewise, where there is soil erosion and the fertility is depleted, wildlife populations dwindle.

Wildlife in one reel

OPERATION "VARIETY"

THE pictures accompanying this story give some idea of the variety of work which game technicians, or biologists, of the Game, Forestation and Parks Commission must do in order to get the information upon which to base wildlife management activities in Nebraska.

Here is a thumbnail sketch of jobs on the agenda for the 1953-54 year for the four-man survey and investigation project:

WATERFOWL — Summer and winter trapping and banding of waterfowl—mostly ducks but including some geese, too—to learn about movements, longevity, production, harvest of local ducks, etc.

Making summer or breeding ground survey to measure population and production trends. Both ground and aerial work used.

Investigating lead poisoning or other local difficulties.

MUSKRATS—Checking breeding territories to follow population trends; examining placenta of trapped females during trapping season to determine productivity rates on study areas; checking ages of trapped 'rats to compare with previous years and with production indices obtained by other methods.

Investigating bank 'rats. (Most of the earlier work has been with lake or marsh muskrats.)

Setting up trapping zones, and making fur harvest inventory through cooperation of trappers.

QUAIL, GROUSE AND PHEASANT — Conducting statewide surveys to determine population trends, hatching and rearing success, and sex ratios. Of particular interest to sportsmen are the pre-season surveys upon which suggestions for the harvest or open season are based.

Gathering information during the hunting season on age and sex ratios, hatching dates, and foods taken.

FIELD BAG CHECKS—Organizing setup for gathering information from direct hunting bag checks by conservation officers. This is a direct measure of hunting success, and compiling this information shows how each season compares with previous season. Field bag checks cover all game seasons.

LABORATORY WORK—Examining coyote droppings from muskrat study areas, and miscellaneous crops, gizzards and droppings from various game birds and mammals and predators when specimen material is forwarded to laboratory. Of special interest is the examining of stomach contents from deer taken in newly opened deer hunting territory. This work, coupled with range examination, enables the Commission to plan deer management in the light of deer food needs and agricultural problems.

DEER AND ANTELOPE—Gathering information at the checking stations during open seasons on such items as condition, age, herd composition and hunter success. Examining range in late winter and early spring to note amount of winter food left when animals are ready for spring range.

PUBLICATIONS AND INFORMATION—Brief reports for information of departmental personnel and the public are issued, often in mimeographed form, concerning various parts of the work while it is in progress or as jobs near completion. In addition, three major publications are planned concerning coyote, pheasant and muskrat investigations which have covered several years. Only when such publications are distributed will the public have complete information concerning the results and details of these investigations.

ANSWERING INQUIRIES—Besides the above, a great many letters are answered directly, in response to individual inquiries concerning a multitude of wildlife problems which people over the state bring to the Commission.

Focus The Picture

FOLLOWING are characteristics of a fur-bearing animal. How many of the characteristics must you read before you can bring the picture into focus? Name and picture of the animal appear on page 19.

1. The pelts of this animal are among the most durable and valuable in North America.

2. Trapping and the encroachment of man have thinned the sparse population of this animal over vast areas.

3. This animal is probably the best swimmer of all our "land mammals."

4. Fish is its favorite food.

5. Another favorite food in its varied diet is crayfish. Other foods are snails and clams.

6. Its beautiful dark brown fur is normally the same color and texture through the seasons. The hair is perfectly straight.

7. This animal has a keen sense of smell and a set of highly developed whiskers that may serve as sense organs when it searches for food in muddy or roily waters.

8. When born, the young are about the size of small ground squirrels. They develop quite slowly and do not see until about five weeks old.

9. In water, the young are carried on the back of the mother until they can swim alone.

10. Home of this animal is usually in a bank burrow, oftentimes an abandoned muskrat or beaver den.

11. Whenever possible, it travels by water as its legs are too short for easy walking.

12. This animal has the outline of a small seal or very big weasel.

13. At one time, this animal was an important fur-bearing animal in Nebraska. It is now, however, extinct in this state.

14. Young and old alike tumble and wrestle. They love a good game of tag and follow the leader. Favorite pastime is sliding.

Sixteen radio stations, including KXXX in Colby, Kans., and one television station carry the weekly OUTDOOR NEBRASKA program. The different stations and their respective program times are:

TRAPPING Can Be PROFTIABLE Hobby

TRAPPING can not only be an enjoyable hobby, but also a quite profitable pastime. The success, however, hinges primarily on the handling of pelts. Poor handling invariably results in equally poor prices while proper pelt handling produces fine returns.

Those words express the opinion of 40-year-old Art Hendricks of Lincoln who is aware of the monetary advantages to be gained by properly preparing pelts—mink in particular. Hendricks, a machinist in the shops of a major railroad in Nebraska's capital city, was recently named winner of the $1,000 top award in the 24th National Fur Show sponsored by Sears, Roebuck and Company.

His care and skill in preparing a mink pelt was responsible for his being awarded the coveted fur award. Thousands of trappers throughout the nation participated in the National Fur Show which was started by Sears for the purpose of encouraging trappers to use greater care in preparing pelts for shipment. The incentives provided by the show have done much to bring about better pelt preparation methods in many states, thereby avoiding unnecessary spoilage and thus conserving for the fur industry one of the nation's most valuable resources.

Hendrick's achievement indicates that long years of experience are not requisites of good handling of pelts. He has been trapping for only a period of about nine years, all on a part-time basis. His trapping career started while in high school. Taking a couple of his dad's common rat traps, he tramped down to the Nemaha River near Bennet where he set them. Fur-bearers were quite numerous and his traps were oftentimes filled. His largest haul in one day was comprised of 25 muskrats.

Two years after graduation from high school, he was forced to give up trapping which he didn't resume again until about four years ago. He has trapped steadily since—again, however, on a part-time basis. And — it has proven quite profitable. In addition to the major award he received from Sears, he has been recipient of a territory award of $200 and three dailawards of lesser amounts. The monetary prizes for his skillfully prepared pelts were accompanied by higher prices per pelt on the fur market.

Hendricks stressed the point that proper pelting is an absolute necessity for a good price. "A muskrat pelt that might ordinarily be worth a dollar or so might be reduced in price to as low as 25 cents," he said. "It might even be worthless if it isn't handled properly."

It has been estimated that hundreds of thousands of dollars are lost annually by trappers throughout the country because of careless pelting. Some time ago, fur buyers in Nebraska were asked to state the most important practices or improvements the trapper should follow in order to insure the highest value of their pelts. Their suggestions were:

(1) Wait for prime season, (2) Skin carefully and flesh thoroughly, (3) Stretch properly, (4) Dry in a cool, dark place, and (5) Clean the pelt.

Other good suggestions were run your traps daily, use traps of proper size, dry the fur before placing the pelt on a stretcher or drying board, and if you wish to sell your catch "on the hoof," take your unskinned animals to the buyer daily.

Pelts are either "open-handled" or "cased." Mink, muskrat, weasel, skunk, civet and opossum are "cased" while raccoon, beaver and badger are "open-handled." Open skins are removed from the animal by slitting straight down the belly from the lower jaw to anal opening, then slitting front and hind legs to the body cut (excepting the beaver on which the legs are not slit). Cased skins are removed by slitting the backs of the hind legs to the anal opening, and peeling the skin forward off the body.

All fur should be cleaned. Those skins prepared with fur side out can be brushed. Some animals, such as coyotes and skunks, commonly are carrying burrs in their fur; these should be removed.

Though Hendricks traps all fur-bearers on which there is an open season, he prefers mink which is only natural inasmuch as the price on that furbearer is comparatively good while that on the other animals is down.

After catching a mink in a trap, the first thing Hendricks does is to clean it. If it has mud or blood on it, he washes it in warm water. He doesn't begin skinning the animal until the pelt is completely dry. The basement is used by Hendricks for drying.

After the fur is cleaned and dry, the steps of pelting are as follows:

1. Place the mink on its back on a clean surface; place your left foot on its tail. Make the first slit by inserting knife blade in middle of heel pad of left hind foot, and cutting along inside of leg straight to anal opening along the line of division between the shorter and longer fur.

2. Do the same on the right hind leg.

3. Skin the belly forward about 4 inches, using the knife.

4. Loosen the skin around both hind legs at the knees. Skin out both hind legs and the feet to toes. Leave the toes and claws on the skin, by cutting the toes off at the second joint.

5. Slit skin on lower side of tail from the anal opening to tip of tail. Skin out tail by using knife.

6. Peel pelt from carcass forward to front legs by pulling steadily and cutting connective tissue.

7. Skin out front legs and feet by pulling lightly but steadily on the skin and cutting connective tissue. Leave toes and claws on the skin by cutting toes off at the second joint.

8. Pull pelt forward over head; cut ear tubes close to the skull. Take care not to damage eye holes, nose and lips.

9. The pelt of a large mink can be fleshed by slipping it over your hand. Pick off all fat and flesh, using knife blade against your thumb. Small mink pelts must be pulled over a drying board for fleshing; the board must be small enough to leave the pelt fitting loosely.

10. Good mink drying boards can be made from quarter-inch box wood; they should be slightly wider at the rear end. Make the board to fit the pelt so that the pelt is taut but not overstretched. Insert a wedge on the belly side; the wedge should be about V2-inch high at the rear end, about V4-inch high toward the nose end.

Secure the tautness of the pelt on the board with small nails—two at each side of the base of the tail, one in the center flap between the hind legs, and one in each hind foot. Drive a small nail in the drying board through one of the eye holes of the pelt. Hang the board by this nail; the tail will dry in the desired position. Hang the pelt in a cool, airy room until dry. Don't put salt or any other preparation on the pelts.

Before mink pelts can be processed, however, it is necessary to trap the animal. Mink prefer small streams and ponds and shallow marshes. Piles of driftwood are especially attractive to them. Their presence is shown by dens near streams; runs through vegetation, often in the vicinity of the den; droppings, commonly in quite large piles (latrines); "bored" muskrat houses, and tracks.

Mink dens are usually round holes leading straight downward, often into old muskrat dens. A latrine is often found near the den. Mink are very active, especially along the margins of streams and ponds or marshes. The numerous tracks they make in these places are probably the most easily discovered sign to be looked for.

Steel trap size No. 3 is suggested for mink. Care of the traps during the time they are not in use is important to their successful operation. At the close of the trapping season they should be cleaned and hung in a dry place. Oiling is not considered necessary. And while in operation—run those traps daily.

The most important part of successful trapping is pelt handling. You can trap innumerable fur-bearers in ideal locations and with desirable sized traps, but unless the pelts are properly handled, your efforts will be much in vain. Repeating Trapper Hendrick's comments, "Poor handling invariably results in equally poor prices while proper pelt handling produces fine returns."

ANOTHER MEANS AVAILABLE TO COMBAT Rough Fish

THERE is in Nebraska a persistent trend in large ponds and small lakes to become in time overpopulated with rough fish. Sometimes this reaches the extent of near exclusion of game fish. The reasons for this more or less natural process are numerous, but are not considered at this time.

In the past, where a lake had become overpopulated with rough fish to the practical extinction of game fish, two management methods were available for remedy. The first and most efficient method has been—and always will be—the draining of such waters to permit the easy removal of all rough fish. Such waters can then be restocked with desirable game fish.

Unfortunately, not all lakes can be drained sufficiently to remove the rough fish and seining has to be resorted to. Time and time again the seining crew used all possible means to remove all rough fish, only to find later that it was an impossibility. Quite often the seining crew removed large numbers of carp with nets but learned later that within a few years the carp were again almost as abundant as before. Seining, even under ideal conditions, is always a very tedious task and costly in nets, equipment and hours of labor required. Rough fish seined from lakes are oftentimes too small to have much sales value and are disposed of. Sometimes they are given to farmers to be used as hog feed.

When a lake can be drained and restocked, it has been found through past experience that good fishing expectancy is about 10 years—from the time of restocking to the time when rough fish are again in command.

The new method, already used widely and often in other states, uses a chemical as an asphyxiant to kill the rough fish. Unfortunately, however, this chemical is not selective as it kills all fish coming into contact with it. This chemical also kills most food organisms.

This method was recently used in a cut-off lake of the Calamus river in Loup county. This particular lake covers from 20 to 30 acres in surface when full. It has the shape of a horseshoe with both open ends having been dammed up. For some years the lake has thus been shut off from the river. The lake, located on land of the Wallace spread, also known as XA ranch, is not posted and is open to public fishing.

Some years back the lake had a good reputation as a bass lake. Crappie and bluegill were also abundant. Recently, however, fishing success had dropped considerably. Bluegill and crappie were seldom caught. An occasional bass was taken by the fishing specialists. Most everybody agreed that the lake was full of carp. This situation apparently dissatisfied the owner of the surrounding land, Mr. Wallace, who called on the Game Commission for help.

Seining the coarse fish was an impossibility as this former ox bow of the Calamus was full of snags. It was very uneven on the bottom and had large areas of shallow water over deep, boggy mud. The lake could not be drained. The only way then to remove the rough fish was through killing with this chemical. The decision was not an easy one. To kill the whole fish population of a lake had only on one occasion ever been attempted in Nebraska.

Mr. Wallace offered to purchase the chemical needed for the work. When it was finally agreed to proceed with the project, he also supplied a dragline to break both dams to lower the lake level by three feet. He further assigned the manager and foreman of his ranch to help and generally made the facilities of the ranch available for the job to fisheries biologists.

Under these favorable conditions, the Game Commission felt justified to carry out the project—using the chemical—on an experimental basis. The decision was also influenced by the request of the fisheries research staff which saw in this experiment an opportunity to get accurate information about the true facts of the fish population. This was particularly desirable for a natural lake in which fishing success had practically disappeared. Accurate information is vitally necessary as a basis for long-time management of waters for fishing.

Lengthy discussions and preliminary surveys preceded the actual beginning of the project which began on Sept. 21. After arriving at the lake, it was found necessary to lower the lake even more. With the use of a dragline, the gap in the dams was deepened to let more water out. Nets were stretched across the outlets to prevent any fish from escaping since one of the objectives was to learn what species of fish were present and in what relative numbers. The seine could be used only in a few areas of the lake. Three hauls produced mostly quillbacks and a few game fish. Even this seining was impeded by snags.

On Sunday, Sept. 27, the application of the chemical started. Within ten minutes, the first fish showed signs of suffocation. The chemical, powdered derris root, had been mixed by kneading with water until a soft paste resulted. This was a noxious job as the derris root did not wet easily and the brisk wind kept blowing the powder away. When it was mixed into a soft consistency, the paste was filled into gunny sacks and loaded on the boats.

Two boats were used to spread the asphyxiant. The two ranch hands manned one boat. Attached to their boat were two gunny sacks—one on each side of the boat—each containing the paste. As the boat moved along, the paste dissolved into the water. It diffused further and slowly sank to the bottom. The three Game Commission biologists took their boat to the shallower and more difficult part of the lake where the water was oftentimes too shallow to support anything but the empty boat. As the biologists, wading in the shallow water and deep mud, pushed the boat along, they tossed the paste by the handful.

The job was a very tedious one as every square foot of water area had to receive the asphyxiant if the job of destroying all rough fish was to be thorough and complete. By about five o'clock the last of the asphyxiant had been put into the water and already there were dead fish floating on the surface everywhere.

This asphyxiant, from the root of a plant, is a chemical which, when present in most minute quantity in the water, comes into contact with the blood vessels of the gills of a fish, irritates and causes these vessels to close. With closed blood vessels, the fish is prevented from absorbing oxygen from the water, bringing about death by asphyxiation.

Only a few carp were alive on the following day and all of these showed effects of the chemical. The same crew that spread the asphyxiant now started the second phase of of the experiment, that of ascertaining the structure of the population—the kinds of fish present and their relative sizes and numbers. Working in two teams, the entire shore line was walked. The dead fish were counted and listed according to species and size. A very large number of fish had been washed ashore and only those that could be well observed were listed. Many fish had sunk to the bottom. These were carefully estimated, based on comparison with the fish actually counted. Both figures were added and the whole counted as total estimate.

Besides counting, a large number of fish representing different size classes were weighed and scales taken to determine their age. From the average weight of the different size classes, the weight was calculated on the whole population. The following represents the structure of the population based on actual counting and weighing:

From this list may be obtained a figure for the estimated pounds of fish per acre of surface water supported by a lake. This figure, 374 pounds per acre, is an apparently good population mark for such a lake. Unfortunately though, rough fish — not desired by many anglers—comprised 342 pounds of the total. Only 32 pounds of fish were game species. The lake had about four pounds of bass per acre, most of which were catchable size. Bluegills were present at about eight pounds per acre. Most of these, however, were rather small and too little for the frying pan. There were about three pounds of crappie per acre, all small in size. Bullheads were present in small but catchable sizes and were found about 16 pounds per acre. In addition, one northern pike weighing about two pounds was found. Mature trout had been stocked in the lake several years ago. There is no record of one ever being caught and none were found. No minnows were observed.

The difference between the rough fish —342 pounds per acre as against only 32 pounds of game fish, less than one-tenth of all the fish in the lake—is very striking. Of these, only half were of usable size. This then shows that actually only about five per cent of the fish present in the lake were of the kind and size fishermen consider worthwhile.

Many questions arise from the results of this experiment. Why should there be so many carp of an average weight of one and one-half pounds and three years old when only one was found that weighed as much as five pounds—and there were practically no young of the year?

A similar situation seems to be present with other rough fish. The majority of sucker and quillback were also about three years old, but only the suckers were represented by young of the year. Of the game fish, the bullheads and crappie were also mostly all about three years of age.

Bluegill ranged from two to several years, as were the bass, but both of these game fish had young of the year and were the only game species that showed some continuous spawning. These two automatically recommend themselves for restocking.

It is of considerable interest to notice that nearly the entire fish population of this lake consisted of fish from two to four years old. It was in 1948 that the two dams were raised to increase the depth and size of the lake. At that time the entrance and exit of fish between WINTER ISSUE 21   the Calamus River and the lake became checked. Perhaps, before this, there might have been a winter kill which destroyed a large number of fish.

What would have happened if still another method was used, such as the stocking of predator fish like walleye or northern pike? For one thing, the experiment had just shown convincingly that this lake would not have had ample food for small walleye and pike. Such a stocking would have failed. Adult walleye or pike may have succeeded if stocked, but they could not have eliminated the larger carp.

The Game Commission is going to restock this lake with bass and bluegill as the recent experiment indicates that those two species should do best. Fishing should again be good—but only if rough fish are kept out. Minnows should not be used unless the angler is sure that they are not small carp. Carp are members of the minnow family. Should rough fish again re-enter the lake, they would in all probability again become abundant in a matter of years and the same situation would exist as it did prior to the use of the chemical.

Use of the chemical has proven successful and will undoubtedly be used again when conditions prohibit complete draining or seining. In many cases all three methods would be unnecessary if the fisherman himself takes caution to keep the game fish in and the rough fish out.

Those Darn Game Wardens

warden for sparing them from embarrassment and prosecution.

The officers strive to prevent infractions before they occur. Examples are plentiful. Should a warden see a hunter or group of hunters in the field near closing time, he turns on his red light or sounds his siren, signaling his presence. Appreciative hunters hurriedly head for their vehicles. The same applies prior to opening shooting time. A warning signal is given to prevent hunters from becoming over-anxious and thus commit a violation of the law.

For quite a period of time following enactment of the plugged gun law, wardens stopped hunters and checked their guns—without making arrests for improper plugging. On many occasions the officer helped the hunter dismantle the gun and insert a plug. The plugged gun law was new and officers were patient with hunters in becoming adjusted to it.

Hunters, after getting out of their cars, and who begin walking down the road or ditch are suggested to get on the other side of the fence. Wardens coming upon a group of anglers about to begin fishing are urged to check if they all have permits.

Conservation officers also volunteer helpful information relative to the laws and regulations. They are good sources of tips on where to fish or hunt and when. They wish to serve the angler and the hunter. They are not holding the position of officer to interfere with outdoor recreation, but to see that the natural heritage of our people is wisely managed on a fair basis for everyone.

In carrying out his duties, the average warden is subjected to all forms of criticism. If the pheasant season is either too long or too short, if this particular county was or wasn't opened, if this regulation isn't what it should be, if the fish aren't biting, if the quail are sitting too tight, or if this person had his gun confiscated and another didn't for the same offense, who gets the blame? You're right—the warden does.

The conservation officer has little or no control over any of these. He makes his recommendations relative to fishing and hunting seasons for his respective district. He doesn't set the seasons. These are determined by the Game Commission and are based on innumerable recommendations and investigations.

He requests fish to be stocked in waters in his district, but he can't make them bite — although he wishes he could.

He knows there are quail in his district, but he can't control the weather and other conditions which affect their habits during the hunting season or any other time of the year.

And—as to the confiscation of guns, he has no control. He carries out his assignment which calls for him to retain — for court's evidence — any gun used illegally. Though statutory law makes it mandatory that such guns be forfeited to the state, some judges, even though finding the accused guilty of the charge, choose not to confiscate the gun while other judges, adhering to the law, order forfeiture. Nevertheless, the officer is blamed for the action required by law.

The variation in fines as reported in newspapers throughout the state has justification because of different circumstances prevalent in the respective violation. There are, however, stipulated minimum and maximum fines which can be assessed for different violations.

So next time, before you make some accusation about your local conservation officer or hear someone else "sound off," stop to consider some of the information presented in this article. The conservation officer is your friend and representative to protect your interests. He arrests the violator who steals from you and other sportsmen. He prevents others from making mistakes.

Cooperate with him and try to understand as he tries his darnest to perform a difficult task in which it seems someone has to get hurt—usually the conservation officer.

Total deer kill in area Nos. 1 and 2 of state was 3,320 deer, representing success for 80 per cent of the 4,000 deer hunters. Top previous success score was 77.6 recorded in 1952.

HIGHLIGHTS of 1953

PERSISTENCE OF THE HEN PHEASANT

WITH the advent of the nesting season modern farming practices and nature place a series of obstacles in the path of the hen pheasant. However, the hen seems to be guided by the old and timeworn motto of "If at first you don't succeed, try, try again."

As in previous years data were obtained during the spring and summer of 1953 on the nesting of pheasants on the 1520-acre Winnebago Pheasant Research area. Observations on 104 nests revealed just what the hen must overcome in order to nest successfully.

With the approach of warmer weather (late April and early May) the hen searched for a nesting site. About the only suitable cover available was in the narrow fencerows. So it was there that she attempted to nest. Her work turned out to be largely just so much wasted effort; for the fencerows were kept under careful observation by crows, who place pheasant eggs high on their list of preferred spring delicacies. Also, the fencerows served as "travel lanes" for mammals, such as ground squirrels and skunks, with a fondness for pheasant eggs. Of the 14 nesting attempts observed in fencerows, only one nest hatched.

Frustrated in her nesting attempt in the fencerow, the hen searched for another nesting site. By this time the alfalfa and red clover fields and some oat fields had grown enough to provide suitable nesting cover. However, the hayfields provided more cover and attracted the majority of the hens, so she followed the crowd and set up housekeeping there. Everything went along fine. It looked like the nest would hatch for sure; that is, until a high speed tractor mower moved into the field. Within a few hours her nest was destroyed along with many others. The hen considered herself lucky to have escaped uninjured. Just how lucky? Observations during the mowing of 156 acres of hay revealed eight hens were killed and 25 hens injured, more than a third of the estimated nesting population of 90 hens. Only six of 56 observed nests in hayfields were hatched prior to the time of mowing.

Forced to change her nesting site for the third time, she selected a site in an adjacent oats field. As it was already late in June, she would have to hurry to have her nest hatch before the harvest. But this time she was lucky, her nest hatched a few hours before the stream of harvest equipment moved into the field. She had just enough time to lead her young brood to the safety of a cornfield.

This hen was the exception rather than the rule. The majority of the hens that had their nests destroyed in the hayfields and then tried to nest in the oat fields did not have sufficient time to hatch a nest before the harvest began. Of the 27 nests found in the oat fields, 15 had hatched before harvest. Hens that nested in the oat fields in preference to hayfields were undoubtedly responsible for the majority of the hatched nests.

Thus, it takes a lot of persistence on the part of the hen pheasant, not to mention luck, to hatch a nest in the present era of mechanized, intensive farming.

Notes On NEBRASKA FAUNA

This is the seventeenth of a series of articles and paintings depicting Nebraska wildlife. The article was written by Dr. J. Henry Sather, fur investigations biologist, and the painting prepared by C. G. Pritchard, staff artist. The Spring Issue of OUTDOOR NEBRASKA will feature the walleye.

TO NEBRASKANS the opossum is not a valuable animal insofar as fur and sport are concerned. It is valuable, however, in view of the fact that it adds to our animal life. It is one of the strangest and therefore most interesting of animals. In North America, the opossum is the sole living representative of that peculiar group of mammals known as marsupials. The marsupials (taken from the Latin word Marsupian meaning a pouch or bag) are most commonly associated with Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania. The kangaroo is undoubtedly the most famous member of the marsupial clan.

Our opossum is about the size of a large house cat and, except for the naked tail and ears, is covered by a grizzled gray coat of fur. The snout is comparatively long and pointed, and the mouth is equipped with a total of 50 teeth —which is quite a mouthful. The protruding black eyes are beady in appearance, and the sense of sight is not too keen. On the other hand, opossums have a well developed sense of smell and a highly developed sense of hearing.

The structure of the hind feet is strangely similar to that of humans and apes in that the thumb is opossable. By opossable one means that the thumb is placed opposite the other digits. Such an arrangement enables the animal to touch the tips of the other digits with the tip of the thumb. Because of this peculiarity, the track of the opossum is unmistakable.

A strange feature of the naked tail is that it is adapted for grasping. Such a tail is known as a prehensile tail. The opossum can wrap its tail around an object and support its own weight for a short period of time. Actually the tail functions primarily as a "fifth hand" while the animal is moving about in the trees; however, it is quite commonly used to transport nesting material such as dry leaves and grasses.

Just 13 days after mating the young are born. This is an amazingly short gestation period for an animal as large as the opossum. At birth the young are still in the very early stages of development and are grub-like in appearance. They have been described as being about % the size of a honey bee. Opossums may bear as many as 20 young although there are feeding facilities for only 12 in the pouch. Those in surplus soon die. Newborn young have unusually strong front legs and are endowed with an instinct to crawl upwards. These two characteristics enable the young to migrate to the pouch under their own power immediately after birth.

A period of about five weeks elapses before the young emerge from the pouch. When they are about eight weeks old, they are on their own. Between the time that they emerge from the pouch and the time that they go out on their own, they "bum rides" on the back of their mother. A firm grasp on the hair enables them to maintain their position on the mother.

The opossum is not very particular when it comes to choosing a home site. In general, they seem to prefer wooded stream bottoms, but they are by no means restricted to such areas. Since they are primarily nocturnal in habit, most of the daylight hours are spent in a great variety of denning sites. Dens may be located in burrows excavated and abandoned by other animals, hollow trees, rock crevices, old squirrel nests, under houses, under piles of brush, etc. They line their dens with dry leaves and grass.

Insofar as food is concerned, the opossum is anything but finicky. He is what is called an omnivorous animal__ anything that is edible suits him. A partial list of the types of food eaten would include insects, worms, birds and their eggs, frogs, snakes, fruits, mice, moles, etc. Spoiled or fresh, it makes no difference to him.

For many years the opossum's ability to lie as still as death in the face of danger has been a thing of wonder. This phenomenon is so closely associated with the opossum that the feigning of death by any type of animal is commonly referred to as "playing possum." The peculiar reaction to danger is probably the result of a nervous reaction that the animal has no control over. It would be foolish to contend that the opossum feigns death because by doing so he knows that he may fool his antagonist. He goes into a state of collapse whether he "wants to or not."

While in such a condition, a person can shove the opossum, roll him about with the foot, or even carry it by the tail and still it will not make a move. The animal would certainly appear to be dead were it not for his warmth and pulse. But—should you walk away from the opossum, watch it closely and you can see it open its eyes. If no danger appears to exist, it will get up and proceed with its normal business.

In Nebraska it seems that the opossum is gradually extending its range northward and westward. It is only in the eastern portion of the state, especially the southeastern portion, that they are present in any great numbers. They could be considered as very rare or non-existent in the northwestern third of the state.

Present Nebraska regulations permit year-around hunt-and trapping of the opossum throughout the state. There is no limit on the number that may be taken. There is one restriction on hunting opossum, however, that being the period between April 1 and August 1 when hunting with dogs is prohibited.

When Huntin's Done