2 Outdoor Nebraska

It's Outdoor Nebraska Time Again

Listen regularly to the Game, Forestation and Parks Commission's radio program, carried without charge as a public service feature by the following radio stations:

KBON—Omaha, Nebraska; .6:15 P.M., Saturday KBRL—McCook, Nebraska 9:15 P.M., Saturday KFGT—Fremont, Nebraska 10:30 A.M., Monday KFOR—Lincoln, Nebraska 5:30 P.M., Saturday KGFW—Kearney, Nebraska 9:45-A.M., Thursday KJSK—Columbus, Nebraska 4:45 P.M., Wednesday KMMJ—Grand Island, Nebraska 11:15 A.M., Saturday KODY—North Platte, Nebraska 7:15 P. M.,Saturday KOLT—Scottsbluff, Nebraska 11:15 A.M., Tuesday KWBE—Beatrice, Nebraska 7:00 P.M., Thursday KXXX—Colby, Kansas 9:00 A.M., Sunday WJAG—Norfolk, Nebraska 9:15 A.M., Sunday WOW—Omaha, Nebraska 10:20 P.M., Saturday

Outdoor Nebraska A Fine Christmas Gift

There is no simpler Christmas shopping that you can do and yet no more effective a present for your friends at Christmas, than a subscription to OUTDOOR NEBRASKA. If you will send a list of names and addresses of those that you wish to receive this subscription as a gift to the Game, Forestation and Parks Commission at Lincoln, Nebraska, attractive notifications will be sent to them just prior to Christmas. Take advantage of this easy way of doing your Christmas shopping.

THIS ISSUE

This issue of OUTDOOR NEBRASKA is unusual in several respects, primarily that most all of the material in it has been printed previously by the Game Department and is material that has been in so great a demand that the editors feel that it would be advisable to reproduce it here in Outdoor Nebraska where all of its readers may have the benefits of these articles.

All of the following articles are reprints from the Game, Forestation and Parks Commission's "Wildlife Notes" which have been published through the use of allocations by the Fish and Wildlife Service through the PittmanRobertson Division. The publications represent the results of research work accomplished by the Game Commission's research biologists working under the Pittman-Robertson program.

It is with regret that the Game Commission announces that the Editor of these "Wildlife Notes" as herein reprinted, Dr. Edson Fichter, who was also Chief Biologist in the PittmanRobertson Division for the Commission, has resigned his position in Nebraska and is now an assistant professor at Pocatello, Idaho. Dr. Fichter's abilities will be missed considerably by the Commission, however, that is not a new experience to the administrators of the Nebraska Game Department inasmuch as higher salaries paid by other states are almost continually luring the fine men away from the Nebraska Game Department that the Commission is training, a situation which is not unique to the Game Department alone, but all phases of public professions in Nebraska.

4 Outdoor Nebraska

Nebraska Pheasant Inventory

by LEVI MOHLER

How are the pheasants getting along? That question, asked in one way or another, comes to Game Commission personnel the year around—especially in late summer and early fall when cooler weather hints of wonderful days out-of-doors which Nebraskans annually enjoy in the pheasant season. Because pheasants are important to" many people, the Game Commission, through its fieldmen, watches these birds closely at all times. It is the purpose of these notes to explain some of the work involved in keeping tab pn pheasants.

Determining the exact number of pheasants on one farm, or in one county, to say nothing of an entire state, would be next to impossible. Hence, rather than attempt a census or absolute count, game workers use methods which give index information that is indicative of population levels. It is perhaps not important to know whether a given piece of land has a thousand pheasants or six thousand. What is important is to know whether the population is going up, holding even, or going down. From the pheasant hunter's viewpoint, to know that an area will provide ooor average, or excellent hunting is far more important than knowing the actual number of birds, however great or small it may be.

Developing usable and practical ways of getting pheasant population information has been the main assignment of many game technicians in several states during recent years. In Nebraska this work began in 1941 and is still in progress. It has been found that certain methods which may work well on small areas are totally inadequate for statewide use. Other methods which would be useful and accurate over large areas, are prohibitive in cost. Hence, the limits set by time, equipment, manpower, and financial outlay confine the work to practical field operations.

Five methods, all directed toward the same problem, have seen considerable use in Nebraska since 1941. Some of these methods are better than others. For example, the roadside count, which had statewide use before some of the other methods were even thought of, is now believed to rank no better than third as a practical statewide inventory device. Yet it has some advantages over other methods.

All of these methods, described below, are proving useful and further improvements will probably be made as time goes on. Several of them, especially if used in combination with each other, appear to be quite satisfactory for pheasant management purposes under present conditions in Nebraska.

Roadside Count of Pheasants

Ever since pheasants became plentiful in Nebraska in the early twenties many people have noticed that these game birds can be easily observed from a car in ordinary driving on rural roads   Outdoor Nebraska 5 (Fig. 1). So it was natural that someone should work out a method for getting pheasant population information from a car. This was done in Iowa, and many other states now use this or a similar method. In Nebraska, roadside counts were used on an experimental basis in 1941 and have been used in from seven to forty-three individual counties by conservation officers and game biologists from 1942 through 1948.

Roadside counts, as used in Nebraska, begin at sunrise and are made by driving an established twenty-mile route at from 15 to 20 miles per hour on mornings of good weather and road conditions in late July. All pheasants seen in a one-way non-stop trip are recorded. The field man travels alone and he records cocks, hens, and young separately. Each route is covered on three different mornings; repeating the same run tends to "average out" the irregularities and extremes of high or low counts which are to be expected in chance observations of wildlife. Each route is laid out so as to give a cross-section of pheasant habitat as it exists in a county and is not meant to cover merely the prime pheasant areas.

So that results may be compared from year to year these counts should occur at the same period in the pheasant reproductive cycle each year. They should be (1) late enough that most of the year's broods will be off the nest, (2) early enough that all observed young can be clearly distinguished from adults, and (3) early enough that the information can be in the hands of the Game Commission when hunting regulations are established for the approaching autumn. Late July was selected as the time for this work and it is usually satisfactory. However, in years when young are very late in hatching, as in 1947, counts should be conducted later.

Roadside counts indicated a decline in pheasants from 1942 through 1947 and a marked increase in 1948. Because of the late hatch in 1947, the fall population was higher than indicated by the roadside counts. The ratio of young birds to adult birds in hunters' bags during the 1947 season, plus winter counts by conservation officers, rural mail carriers, and wildlife reporters, showed that reproductive success in 1947 was actually much better than indicated by the July counts.

Generally speaking, an index figure of one pheasant seen per mile of roadside count indicates good hunting for the locality. Half that many—or a bird per two miles—indicates only fair hunting, while two birds or more per mile indicates excellent hunting. Pheasant hunters, of course, realize that hunting can be very good in spots even in counties where the distribution of birds is poor and roadside counts quite low.

After several years of roadside counts it is believed the ratio of young per adult female is a more reliable index of pheasant reproductive success than is the result in terms of pheasants seen per mile of driving. For example, the ratio of young per adult female dropped in the years 1943 through 1946, years of pheasant decline, while the roadside count showed a gain of about eleven per cent in pheasants seen per mile in 1946 and a drop in the other three years.

Roadside counts are probably (1) more accurate for the state as a whole than for individual localities since the sample is larger, and (2) not sufficiently accurate to be of much use in evaluating pheasant populations in areas which show fewer than one pheasant per mile of driving.

Wildlife Records From Farmers and Ranchers

Game bird records kept by Nebraska farmers and ranchers also provide information on population trends. These "wi|dlife reporters", several hundred in number and in all parts of the state, (Fig. 2) receive two brief report forms each year. The early spring report gives information on the number of each kind of game bird wintering on the reporter's farm or ranch as compared with the year before; the late summer report form asks for the same sort of information on nesting success. Only pheasant data will be discussed here.

This method of game inventory has been in use from 1941 to the present. More than 600 farmers and ranchers returned their August report in 1948. While many local variations are, of course, noted in most years, these reports indicate a general decline in pheasant population from 1943 into 1947 and a definite upswing in 1948.

Wildlife reporters showed a good population of pheasants for the state as a whole for the winter of 1941-42. The hatch was excellent in 1942 and good numbers again over-wintered in 1942-43. Nesting success was not quite so goo^ in 1943 and the 1943-44 winter population was considered below that   6 Outdoor Nebraska of the previous two winters. The 1944 nesting season was poor again and the end of the 1944-45 winter showed further losses in the over-all population. Nesting success in 1945 was about the same as in 1944. The over-wintering situation in 1945-46 looked improved, but nesting success in 1946 was the poorest in five years and the 1946-47 winter population reached a new low. 1947 again brought what wildlife reporters generally considered a poor nesting season, but the 1947-48 winter population looked much improved. (This over-wintering gain was greater in cocks than in hens, since the shortcrthan-usual hunting season of 1947 permitted a relatively higher carry-over of cocks than had previous heavier harvests.)

The reports on over-wintering pheasants do not indicate merely the severity of local winter losses, which are usually light, but they also reflect the success of the previous year's reproductive activity. Even a very mild winter would likely over-winter fewer pheasants than the previous winter if nesting success was poor in the intervening summer.

—Photo by the author. Sight Records of Pheasants

When Nebraska's first statewide game bird survey began in 1941 the men assigned to the project began keeping systematic records of pheasants seen. These records accumulated from miscellaneous driving on other phases of the work as well as from the roadside counts which were designed for the specific purpose of observing pheasants. Upon analysis, it soon became apparent that changes in pheasant behavior and populations, month-to-month or even week-to-week, were reflected in the sight records. Here are some phases of pheasant activity which sight records through the year reveal:

1. The fall and winter flocking of large numbers of pheasants at spots having suitable food and cover.

2. The spring associations of cocks with hens for breeding.

3. The "disappearance" of the hens as nesting begins.

4. The "disappearance" of the adult cocks and the reappearance of the adult hens as the breeding season wanes—the cocks begin moulting while hens show up with young.

5. The rapid changes in observed sex ratio among pheasants as the above changes occur.

6. The steady rise in the ratio of young to adults as late July approaches.

7. The morning movement from grassy cover, stubble, or similar roosting cover to feeding areas— and the opposite movement in the evening.

Perhaps the most useful information to come from conservation officers' and biologists' sight records is the ratio of young per adult hen observed through July and August. A high ratio of young to hens indicates a gain in total population for the area covered; below a certain point a population decrease is indicated. Population turnover in pheasants is rapid, and it seems to be quite well established that pheasants cannot maintain   Outdoor Nebraska 7 their numbers if the observed midsummer ratio drops much below three young per adult hen. In years of population increases, particularly in areas where depleted populations are recovering, the ratio of young may be considerably above that. For example, in 1948 the ratio in the first week of August was well above 5 young per adult hen.

In 1942 and in 1948 sight records showed a high ratio of young per adult hen and population increases were evident in both those years. From 1943 through 1947 the ratio of young per adult hen was not high enough to keep Nebraska's pheasant population at the 1942 level.

Pheasant Records by Rural Mail Carriers

After experimenting with various ways of getting population information, a method was sought which would blanket the entire state in a short time. Preliminary results from individual mail carriers at scattered points in the state proved quite helpful. Then, after a thorough trial, in which mail carriers in northeast Nebraska gave a very high type of cooperation, the system of getting records from carriers in the statewide area was begun in January 1945. The main purpose of this initial statewide effort was to learn more about the ratio of cocks to hens after an 80-day open season on cock pheasants.

The carriers have done the job so well, and their coverage of the state is so extensive, that their records are now believed to be one of the very best methods for getting statewide information in a hurry. When this was written the rural carriers had made 13 six-day counts at designated seasonal periods. Observations on six successive days tend to average out daily fluctuations which might result from unfavorable road, weather, or other local conditions. Over 600 carriers have reported each time, and their game bird observations have now covered nearly 2,500,000 miles of driving.

Their summer records, repeated at the same time in successive years, provide a yardstick for measuring the annual productivity of pheasants through the observed ratio of young birds to adult hens. Some rather consistent seasonal differences have been shown. For example, in most years more pheasants are seen in the spring than in midsummer even though there are actually more pheasants in mid-summer. This simply shows that a larger percentage of the total birds is seen in spring than at other seasons; visibility of pheasants is high in the spring because concealment cover is then near a minimum and the courting behavior of the birds makes them especially conspicuous and easy to observe.

Since the volume of data from mail carriers' reports is very large, the numbers of birds observed appear to be a reliable index of relative abundance of pheasants from year to year.

These reports showed smaller numbers of pheasants in 1946 and 1947 than in 1945. Important increases were noted in both winter and summer numbers in 1948. In winter and summer counts by mail carriers, the following numbers of pheasants were seen per 100 miles of driving:

Winter Summer 1945 23.8 24.5 1946 14.2 17.6 1947 13.2 10.4 1948 24.8 16.1

Rural mail carriers, traveling mostly in mid-day, see smaller numbers of pheasants than they would if a similar amount of driving was done in early morning or late evening. But since practically all of them use a similar part of the day their reports provide very useful information. Statewide data of the same kind are now available from several other states which have followed Nebraska's lead in this method of game survey.

Spring Pheasant Crowing Counts

Early risers throughout pheasant range have noticed that cock pheasants crow regularly in the early morning during the spring months. By counting the calls heard under specified conditions, it is possible to get a very close approximation of the number of adult cocks in a local area. Where the sex ratio is known these counts provide an excellent index to the local pheasant population. This method has had extensive use in Nebraska in 1947 and 1948. It was used experimentally in Nebraska in the five years before 1947.

These crowing counts are taken for two-minute periods, beginning 40 to 50 minutes before sunrise and ending about 40 to 50 minutes after sunrise. Most of the counts are taken in late April, May, and early June—that time of year during which crowing is at or near its maximum. This method gives reliable results even in areas of low bird population   8 Outdoor Nebraska where some other methods are practically useless. Usually about 20 different listening stops are made by one man in one morning.

Two-minute counts were taken at over 700 places throughout Nebraska pheasant range in the spring of 1947 and at about COO places in 1948. Crowing counts were made in 41 counties in 1947, in 23 counties in 1948. Kearney County averaged 59 cock calls per two-minute stop in 1947 and 83 calls in 1948. In the first year Boone, Custer, Wayne, and Perkins counties each averaged more than 40 calls; in the second year Box Butte, Custer, Fillmore, Perkins, Sheridan, Sherman, Valley, and Wayne counties each averaged more than 40 calls. In 14 counties where counting was done in both 1947 and 1948 the averages were about 20 percent higher in 1948, indicating that a considerably greater number of pheasants went into the breeding season in 1948 than in 1947.

Although the pheasant population has shown great changes from year to year, statewide hunters' report cards have never shown an average of more than three pheasants bagged per hunting day nor less than two pheasants per hunting day in the years 1942 through 1946 when the daily bag limit was never lower than five. This indicates that hunting has been quite good year after year despite population fluctuations.

Pheasant inventory work will continue so that the harvesting of birds can be managed within the margins of safety suggested by the pheasant population and its current trends.—Lincoln, Nebraska.

Foods of the Pheasant in Nebraska

By LEVI L. MOHLER, Biologist, Pheasant Investigation

A knowledge of the foods taken by pheasants and an understanding of the feeding habits of this game bird are necessary in planning sound pheasant management. During recent years wildlife biologists have given considerable attention to studies of the food relationships of pheasants.

These notes are based largely upon a study of the contents of 160 crops from pheasants collected in 46 counties; 127 of these birds were collected by Game Commission personnel from 1941 to 1949. The crop contents were analyzed in the Game Commission's Wildlife Laboratory. Information on the remaining 33 was taken from unpublished notes of the late Prof. Myron H. Swenk, who examined the crops from pheasants which were sent to him by Game Commission personnel during the period 1930 to 1937. The 160 crops include four or more from every month of the year; largest numbers were collected during October and April, which are represented by 44 and 23 crops, respectively. No empty crops were included.

Waste Grains, Insects, and Weed Seeds—Various cultivated crops along with the insects and weed seeds associated with them, formed the bulk of the foods found in the 160 pheasant crops (Fig. 3).

Plant material — mainly seeds, but also including fruits, stems, leaves, and other plant parts — was predominant. Ninety-three per cent of the crops contained some plant material; 58 per cent contained some animal material; 42 per cent contained only plant material; 51 per cent contained both plant and animal material; 7 per cent contained only animal material.

Earlier studies by Swenk* showed vegetable matter, such as grains, seeds, pods, berries, and plant debris made up 89 per cent (by weight) of the food found in the crops of 100 pheasants taken in Valley County in 1929; animal matter, including insects, spiders, millipedes, earthworms, snails, and small vertebrates made up the remaining 11 per cent.

Of particular importance among the plant materials in the present study were the seeds of some cultivated plants which, in the form of waste grains, are available to pheasants during the entire year. While a dozen kinds of cultivated plants were represented, only corn, wheat, barley, oats, and sorghum occurred in more than two per cent of the 160 crops. Of these, corn and wheat were far more important than the others. Corn occurred in 53 per cent, wheat in 28 per cent, barley in nearly 12 per cent, and oats and sorghum each occurred in 7.5 per cent of the crops. Wheat was more important in the west than in the remainder of the state. Sudan grass, rye, sorgo, beans, soy beans, kafir, and alfalfa, each occurred in less than 2 per cent of the crops. Corn is the most important year-round pheasant food in Nebraska except in sandhill areas where cultivation is not practiced.

At least 41 kinds of wild plants furnished   Outdoor Nebraska 9 material which was eaten by the pheasants; 34 of these were non-woody plants, most of which are considered weeds. Of the common weeds the seeds of foxtails, sunflowers, polygonums (including knotweed, smartweed, black bindweed, and winged buckwheat), and pigweeds were found most frequently. Foxtail seeds occurred in over 21 per cent of the crops. Some other common weeds represented were hemp, blue vervain, tickseed, lamb's quarters, dandelion, Russian thistle, ragweed, sand bur, meadow rue, buffalo bur, and beggar's tick.

Weed seeds, especially of the larger kinds, such as sunflower, were taken at all seasons—less frequently during late spring and early summer than at other seasons.

Seven kinds of woody plants—coral berry or buckbrush, poison ivy, wild plum, scarlet sumac, prairie rose, wild grape, and Russian olive—each contributed fruits or seeds to one or more of the crops examined.

That pheasants can maintain good populations without the benefit of cultivated foods is well known in Nebraska, Seven of the crops in this study were from the sandhills area (Thomas and Blaine Counties) and with a single exception the foods taken were from wild plants. Sharp and McClure*, in their study of 160 crops from the Valentine National Wildlife Refuge in the sandhills of Cherry County, found corn in only 10 crops and these were all collected in the vicinity of winter feeding stations and experimental food patches. They found material from over a hundred plant species in the crops, and foods produced by members of the sunflower, grass, polygonum (buckwheat), lamb's quarters, and ragweed groups   10 Outdoor Nebraska appeared to be especially important to the pheasants.

Grasshoppers Taken by Pheasants— Insects made up the larger part of the animal foods. Grasshoppers or their eggs were found in over 24 per cent of the crops. Grasshoppers were taken more commonly than any other kind of insect. However, the list of harmful insects taken included several kinds of beetles, wireworms, cutworms in both the larval and adult stages, chinch bugs, moths, ants, corn ear worms, corn root worms, seed corn beetles, potato bugs, tree hoppers, tree crickets, and flies.

Other animal matter found in a few of the crops consisted of spiders, harvestmen, snails, millipedes, and crustaceans.

Seasonal Changes in Feeding—Seasonal shifts in feeding habits reflect the changes in availability of various foods. Grasshoppers, for example, were taken in all seasons but they were found in more crops than was any other kind of food in June, July, and August, and they occurred in a third of the crops for the September-October period.

Corn was relatively unimportant in the months from May through September—only 21 per cent of the crops for this five-month period contained corn. With the coming of frosts and the beginning of the corn harvest which usually gets under way at that time, corn again showed up as an important pheasant food. During the seven months from October through April 67 per cent of the crops contained corn (Fig. 4).

Cutworms, which annually cause considerable damage to seedling corn, showed up in pheasant crops taken in April and May. In April, before corn planting has begun in Nebraska, 17 per cent of the crops contained cutworms. During May, the main corn planting month, 54 per cent of the crops contained cutworms.

Wheat was found in 50 per cent of the September crops. Considerable quantities of waste grain are available in harvested fields in early fall. Wheat was taken during all seasons but after September it apparently was not so important again until in March and April when it appeared in 50 per cent and 48 per cent of the crops, respectively. Oats was taken some at all seasons, but much less frequently than corn or wheat. Oats appeared in 21 per cent of the crops collected in July—concurrently with oats harvesting operations. As a pheasant food this grain is more important in northeast Nebraska than in other parts of the state.

* Sharp, W. M., and H. E. McClure. 1945. The pheasant in the sandhill region of Nebraska. In The Ring-necked Pheasant, edited by W. L. McAtee. American Wildlife Institute.

Generally speaking, weed seeds appeared most commonly in the crops during the fall, when mature seeds were available in abundance. In late spring, however—before insects were abundant and when some of the staples, including grain, were less abundant because of harvesting, winter feeding, and spring tilling—some of the weed seeds maintained a high place in the frequency with which they were eaten. For example, the polygonums (including black bindweed, knotweed, smartweed, and wild buckwheat) were found in over 54 per cent of the May crops—a higher percentage than either corn or wheat attained during that month.

Winter Cover Near Food Important— The most important winter food of pheasants in Nebraska is corn. This grain is readily available in most farming areas even during periods of severe winter weather. Winter starvation in areas lacking corn or other cultivated crops took considerable numbers of pheasants in 1943 and 1944, but starvation has been practically unknown in cultivated areas in Nebraska. Pheasants usually winter well where good woody cover is found adjacent to cornfields.

If you are a FARMER, PLEASE, allow the hunters the privilege of hunting on your land if they are gentlemanly enough to ask your permission to do so.

Outdoor Nebraska11 11

Winter Foods of Quail in Nebraska

by DAVID DAMON

Information on the food requirements and feeding habits of a game animal is essential in building a management program for that species. It is not necessary to know every kind of food an animal eats. It is important to know (1) the food items most commonly taken, (2) their relative value to the well-being of the animal, and (3) the factors which influence the animal's success in getting those foods.

Winter is usually the only season during which quail in Nebraska are subjected to critical food problems. Studies on the natural winter foods and feeding habits of bobwhite are, therefore, of prime importance in formulating a quail management program in this state.

Kinds of Food—Foods which are essential to game vary from locality to locality and season to season. The relative importance of several fall and winter foods in the diet of quail in Nebraska, as expressed by frequency of occurrence in 142 healthy (not starved or starving) birds, is shown in Fig. 5. Corn was the single item most frequently found. (Bobwhite readily swallow whole kernels of corn.) Ragweed (both the large and small species) and sunflower rank second and third, respectively, and are especially important in southeastern Nebraska. Birds collected throughout the rest of the state, and particularly outside the cornbelt, contained a greater variety of weed seeds and showed a more frequent occurrence of both weed and shrub seeds. This apparently indicates that quail in Nebraska which live outside the main corn-producing areas include in their fall and winter diet a greater variety and quantity of native seeds than do cornbelt quail.

Most of our knowledge of the nutritive value of and need for the various items in a bird's diet has come from studies on poultry. Valuable information is now accumulating on dietary requirements of game birds. It is known that wild quail can survive a northern winter on corn alone—and that they will starve to death on a steady diet of buckbrush, sumac, wild grape, or wild rose (Fig. 7). The dried fruits and seeds of these plants when taken alone can, at best, serve only to slow down the rate of starvation.

Studies in Nebraska have shown that sorghum and soybeans are also capable of carrying quail through the winter. Probably a number of wild plant species have seeds which are nutritious enough to suport quail throughout tha winter.

Feeding Habits—Of special significance in planning a quail management program is the bird's habit of not venturing far from winter cover—even in search of food. Quail perfer to remain within or close to vegetation, usually brushy, which offers them protection from wind and escape from predators. For this reason sources of food must be close to cover to be available to this species. Regardless of how abundant any food may be—or how accessible it may seem to be—if it is farther from suitable cover than the quail are willing to travel, it is of little use to them.

  12 Outdoor Nebraska

A source of food, available by its position relative to cover, can be made unavailable by weather. For example, an abundance of corn on the ground in a machine-picked field can become unavailable following a heavy snowfall or a freezing rain.

The tendency of quail to remain in their established winter territory may hold a covey to a range in which the food supply has become unavailable as a result of severe weather conditions. Undernourished birds become emaciated and weak. Attempts to , seek further for food expose them to wind and predators. A starving bobwhite has little chance of finding a new source of food under severe winter conditions.

Corn and Quail—Corn is considered to be the most important winter food of quail in eastern Nebraska. It may be in cribs, in shocks, on the standing stalks, or as loose ears and kernels left on the ground by a mechanical picker. But any of these, to be available, must be near a hedgerow (Fig. 8), brushy draw or valley, grove, or other woody cover. Good winter cover is essential to quail survival—but a covey cannot live long in the finest of cover if a source of good food is not available.

Life or Death—The importance of corn as a winter food for quail—and the significance of availability of this food —was clearly demonstrated in March 1948, when a heavy blanket of snow (12 to 18 inches) covered parts of the southeastern counties of Nebraska. Coveys which were relying on waste corn in machine-picked fields had been under observation for several months. Overnight this food supply was cut off by the deep snow. The quail turned for subsistence to the seeds of buckbrush, sumac, and pigweed—anything that remained above the snow. The emergency lasted for two weeks; the temperature dropped below zero on several nights. Many coveys that had been depending largely upon machine-picked corn fields as their winter larders died of starvation. Some of the dead birds had their crops crammed full of buckbrush and sumac seeds.

Coveys that had been doing their winter feeding in unharvested corn, or in hand-picked fields where occasional ears were left on the stalks, fared much better. Some good quality food remained available above the snow in these situations and relatively few birds were lost.

II Can Be Done—Corn or grain sorghum left unharvested in the outer row or two of a field adjacent to or near good winter cover can help quail through the winter. Some farmers plant small patches or a few rows of grain at the edge of a field especially for wildlife. It is important that the grain remain off the ground so that ordinary snows will not cover it, and that it be accessible from woody cover used by the birds. A planned program of natural winter feeding, toward which sportsmen's organizations can do much, is far more effective and much less costly than trying to get feed to the birds during an emergency.

Outdoor Nebraska 13

Multiflora Rose

by JAMES AGER

Increased game populations in Nebraska can be realized through intelligent management. The development of wildlife habitat is the management practice of first importance. The planting and maintenance of vegetation is one of the first steps in habitat development.

Most of the game in Nebraska is produced on agricultural lands; wildlife management practices must conform to good land use. The kinds of plants and the planting patterns to be used in habitat development must, therefore, meet certain rather definite requirements—they must produce food and cover for wildlife species; they must fit into modern farm planning. Plantings of multiflora rose can meet these requirements.

How It Grows

Multiflora rose is a thorny shrub which grows to a height of six to eight feet. During June and July, it is covered with clusters of small, white flowers. The many small, red fruits which are produced remain on the bushes until spring. This plant, sometimes called the many-flowered rose, is generally considered to be hardy as far north as northern Missouri; but Nebraska has some successful ten-year-old plantings which have survived our winters with no serious loss. South Dakota has ten-year-old plantings that have come through their winters with no loss of plants; some individual canes or branches have winter-killed, but not enough to impair the plants' value as wildlife cover or as a living fence. It can, therefore, be said with reasonable certainty that we can expect success over the eastern half of Nebraska, and possibly over the entire state.

Rosa multiflora asks little and gives a great deal. It will survive on poor soils, and its water requirements are small. Most of the Nebraska plantings of ten years ago were made on highway cut banks where their soil was only the raw sub-soil and the slope was so great that most of the rainfall ran off, yet today they are healthy growing plants. Those planted on the level in good soil have naturally done better, but multiflora rose has demonstrated its ability to survive under very poor conditions.

It is more resistant to disease than our common wild rose. No serious disease or insect damage has been found, although some defoliation from disease and grasshoppers will occur in late summer.

While it is easily propagated by tip layering, it will not spread in competition with either sod or cultivation. There is some seed germination under the most favorable conditions, but never to the point of becoming a nuisance. It does not sucker. It will reach maturity in about five to six years of fair conditions, and should be cattle-tight in even less time.

Wildlife Cover and Stock-proof Fence

One of the practices of first importance in wildlife management over much of Nebraska is the planting and maintenance of shrubby field borders. Border plantings can be planned to furnish runways along which game birds and mammals can travel—for example, from food to winter cover. Such protective lanes are often the deciding factor in increasing quail populations, or even in insuring survival of the quail on a given area. Multiflora rose produces good field borders; it further fulfills several other wildlife requirements, such as cover in which to rest and to escape predatory enemies. Its countless fruits constitute a considerable supply of winter food. All this—plus the bonus to the farmer of a living fence (Fig. 8). The farm family has an increased hunting potential on their land and the pleasure of more song birds around the place. Multiflora rose promises to do all these things—and more!

Erosion Control

One of the chief values of multiflora rose is its ability to hold the soil. At the site of the original Nebraska plantings on highway cut banks, there is practically no erosion as compared to similar areas with no plantings. For this reason, multiflora rose should also be included in gully plantings and on terraces dividing crop land from grass land.

  14 Outdoor Nebraska How To Grow It

The seeds germinate readily after "ripening" at a temperature slightly above freezing. This is most easily accomplished by stratification, which is a process of mixing the seed with sand and damp peat moss and holding it at a temperature of a few degrees above freezing for sixty days.

Seeds of multiflora rose should be planted as soon after April 1 as possible. Plant in rows % to % inch deep at the rate of about 40 seeds per foot. This rose will grow readily and should be ready to transplant to permanent locations the following spring. Clean cultivation is necessary for one year after transplanting.

When transplanting, care must be taken to prevent too long exposure of the roots, but since multiflora rose is an easy plant to transplant, high survival may be expected if put in the ground as soon as the frost goes out. In planting a living fence, plants should be set in a single row one foot apart. No special pruning process is required. For group or clump plantings, the plants may bs set three to four feet apart.

Multiflora and the Future

Plantings of multiflora rose can fulfill some of the requirements for survival of many of Nebraska's wildlife species. They may prove to be a positive factor in our game expansion program. It is well known that the bobwhite requires more or less extensive areas of woody vegetation in its range. Nebraskans have been enjoying a huntable surplus of bobwhite quail in the extreme southeastern portion of the state, where there are hundreds of miles of osage orange hedgerows. Studies in Nebraska have shown (1) that bobwhites may be absent in otherwise good quail range because of a scarcity or complete lack of suitable woody field borders, and (2) that enlargement of the area over which a huntable surplus of quail can be produced in Nebraska is practical within limits dictated by climate, soil, and agricultural practices. This expansion of rarj can be accomplished with plantings of woody cover in patterns directed by farm plans and quail requirements. A good quail management program in Nebraska requires close co-ordination with proper land use. The production of crops of quail can be a conscious part of land use. Multiflora rose furnishes good quail cover and fits in with modern, soil conserving farm management.

Outdoor Nebraska 15

Management of Native Deer in Nebraska

JOHN WAMPOLE & EDSON FICHTER

Deer are on the increase in Nebraska. Reports of deer seen, of deer killed on highways, and of localized cases of damage to crops by deer have become increasingly frequent during the last ten years. Since Nebraska is not primarily a land of forests nor of great repute as a deer state, the presence of these mammals in more than rare occurrences arouses considerable interest— and creates new problems in wildlife management.

It is the purpose of these notes to answer some of the questions most commonly asked about deer in Nebraska, and to point out certain misunderstandings which have led to popular attitudes that are not in keeping with the best interests of the land, the people, or the deer themselves. Answers to the problems of deer management in Nebraska must, however, at this time be more general than specific, tentative and progressive rather than final.

Where in Nebraska are Deer Found? Deer and evidence of these animals are being seen in most parts of the state where there are enough trees and brush to provide suitable food and cover. The principal centers of abundance appear to be the Nebraska National Forest in the central part of the state, the Pine Ridge in the northwest, the wooded areas of the Platte Valley, particularly the North Platte and the nearby Wildcat Hills, and the rough and wooded country of northeastern Nebraska. Beyond these centers deer are largely limited to wooded or brushy stream valleys and their borders. That Nebraska has many miles of creeks and rivers may be significant in the recent return of important numbers of deer to much of the state.

How Long Have Deer Been In Nebraska? Examination of the journals of early explorers reveals that deer were found in considerable numbers in the region that is now Nebraska by the first white men to arrive and report their observations. Fragments of deer bones and antlers found in excavations of Indian village sites indicate the presence of deer long before the coming of the white man.

What Are the Sources and Causes of Nebraska's Present Deer Population? It is possible that deer, like so many wild animals, were going through recurrent periods of relative scarcity and abundance   16 Outdoor Nebraska long before the time of white settlement. The advance of civilization, as we know it, was apparently responsible for sustained losses in deer numbers during the last century; extinction was probably most nearly reached in the late 1800's or early years of the present century. In isolated areas small numbers of deer remained. This seed stock, together with a small amount of movement from similar, nearby deer ranges in neighboring states, is thought to have been the source of our present deer population.

Probably numerous causes have activated this return of deer to much of Nebraska. Many of these causes are not clear; their relative importance is difficult to evaluate. Protection by law has no doubt contributed considerably. Certain abilities of the deer to adapt themselves to changes in environment are possibly only now being revealed by their recent increases in a region where modern land use practices once appeared to have denied them suitable habitat.

Are the Deer All the Same Kind? Two species of native deer are present in Nebraska—the white-tailed or Virginia deer eastwardly, the mule deer westwardly. The ranges of the two species overlap in the central part of the state. A controlled harvest of deer was conducted in the Bessey Division of the Nebraska National Forest in December 1945; two of the 361 animals taken were whitetails. A few fallow deer, a species not native to North America, occur in the state as,a result of releases and escapes.

The best field marks for distinguishing white-tailed and mule deer are furnished by their tails (Fig. 9). The mule deer's tail is white on the upper surface with only the tip black. A white rump patch extends on either side of and above the tail. The tail of the whitetail is blackish on the upper surface, showing only a thin fringe of white; the entire under side of the tail is white. When alarmed the whitetail characteristically raises the rather large bushy tail, showing then an unmistakably white "flag." The relatively large ears of the mule deer and the different branching patterns of the antlers (Fig. 9) offer other field identification marks. The fallow deer seen in Nebraska are white or whitish..

How Many Deer in Nebraska Now? Actual numbers of any wildlife species are rarely determinable over an area as large as Nebraska (see also Wildlife Management Notes, Vol. 1, p. 7). Approximations of deer numbers can be made on certain deer ranges. It is more important, however, to know the relationships of the deer population to the extent and quality of its range. Examination of much of the known deer range in the state indicates that all suitable habitat is probably occupied.

How Fast Do Deer Increase? Since twins are common and triplets occasionally seen, a deer herd could double its numbers in a very short time under favorable conditions. Emphasis must be placed upon that term "favorable conditions." The extent and quality of deer range—called carrying capacity—appear to influence the reproductive rate. Unfavorable range conditions result in malnutrition and a lowered rate of increase. An analysis of age-classes among 361 deer harvested in the Nebraska National Forest in December, 1945, indicated that the reproductive rate in that herd, hunted then for the first and as yet only time, was lower than that commonly shown by herds that are regularly hunted in obviously better range.

What About Carrying Capacity? Every good rancher and farmer knows that a given unit of pasture land has the capacity for successfully carrying only a limited number of livestock. Just as over-stocking of pastures with cattle brings decreased beef production, depleted range, soil erosion, and damaged economy, so can over-stocking of deer prove detrimental to the ability of the range to produce and maintain a thrifty herd.

The carrying capacity of deer range is determined by the kinds of food plants present, their abundance, whether the deer like them, and their food values. Deer can and do become too numerous. If they increase beyond the carrying capacity of their range, the food plants cannot maintain themselves under the excessive pressure and depletion of the range follows.

The rancher profits by the annual increase of his herd by selling some of his cattle; he manages his herd on a sustained yield basis by keeping it within the carrying capacity of its range; he annually reduces his herd by removing that portion which the available food supply can not support. He thereby makes wise use of his land. When overabundance of deer occurs natural reductions result because of depleted range. The direct causes may be malnutrition, lowered reproductive rate, starvation, or disease. To allow a deer herd to increase beyond the carrying capacity of its range is not wise use of   Outdoor Nebraska 17 "the land.

Recognition of depleted deer range is not always possible by casual observation. For example, starving deer do not disperse in search of food; damage to range is, therefore, usually spotty. Patches of food plants untouched by deer on over-stocked ranges can obscure the true picture.

Seventeen wildlife biologists, including some of America's leading students of deer management, met at the Ninth North American Wildlife Conference in 1944, to discuss experiences with deer herds that have grown too large for the natural food supply. They were in agreement on the following points:

1. If excess deer are not shot off ihey will starve off.

2. When a herd starves down the carrying capacity of the range goes with it.

3. The sooner excess deer are removed, the more deer the range will carry later.

4. Reduction should be completed before starvation begins.

5. Delay in removing excess deer lowers their physical vigor.

6. A herd can be reduced effectively only by removing females.

7. Hunting provides the only practical method of removing deer.

Deer Hunting In Nebraska. On the basis of present knowledge, there are no indications that the deer population of Nebraska will reach numbers great enough to warrant a statewide open season such as those in some states where many thousands of animals are harvested annually. Deer range in Nebraska will probably not support such numbers. Local situations, however, where herds exceed the carrying capacity of the range, may necessitate harvests such as that conducted in 1945 on the National Forest area. Increasing reports of damage to crops in several widely separated areas of the state afford some evidence that harvestable surpluses of deer are becoming available.

Legislation enacted in 1947 authorizes the Game Commission to issue special permits for the killing of only male deer in certain counties in Nebraska.

What Do Deer Eat? A popular misbelief is that where extensive native grasslands are available deer should thrive. This topic needs special attention.

Deer are more given to browsing than to grazing. That means they feed principally upon the twig tips, buds, leaves, and fruits of trees, shrubs, vines, and non-grassy herbs—regardless of how much grass is available. Wherever studies on deer foods have been made this has been found to be true. Nebraska's deer are no exception (Fig. 10).

Deer do not feed equally upon all browse available; they apparently like some plants more than others. It is well known that, where deer range and cropland are interspersed, alfalfa, clover, corn, and garden vegetables are eaten by these animals. All food materials are not equally good for the deer. It has been shown that, when forced to subsist on a diet of hay alone or in various combinations with commercial feeds, deer in enclosures lost weight and in some instances became so weakened from malnutrition that disease and death followed.

Most of the deer range and feeding habits investigations in this state have been made on study areas within the Nebraska National Forest situated in the grass-covered sandhills. The addition of man-planted trees to the already available native trees and shrubs provided an increase of actual browse supply. This increase in browse probably fostered a marked increase of the deer herd which was on the area before the plantations were started soon after 1900. Limited observations have been made in the Pine Ridge where an extensive natural tree and shrub growth occurs.

Systematic observations on study areas in deer range in the Nebraska National Forest were begun in March, 1946, and are still in progress. The winters of 1946-47 and 1947-48 were favorable to the deer—there was no deep snow to cover the available food. The deer could choose the items of their diet as readily as they did in the summer, and apparently much of the feeding was done as a matter of choice.

New Jersey tea or redroot, sandcherry, wild rose, and chokecherry, together with several winds of forbs (non-grassy herbs) appeared to make up the bulk of the summer and early fall foods. Late summer mowing along trails as a measure of road maintenance provided drycured plants that apparently were relished by the deer as shown by track observations. Autumn browsing was noted on buckbrush (also known as wolf-berry), becoming more intensive in November. Junipers (commonly called cedars) on one study area were subjected to light browsing and antlerrubbing in October with increasingly heavy antler-rubbing in November and browsing in December. Rose hips were   18 Outdoor Nebraska an important item of fall diet on some areas.

Spring browsing occurred on buds and early tip growth of sandhill willow, poison ivy, and buckbrush. Although little direct evidence has been gathered in Nebraska, other studies have shown that for a short time in early spring grass may form a substantial part of the deer's diet.* Fall plantings of rye on idle tree seedling beds attracted several deer that managed to get into the fenced nursery area.

Range studies in Nebraska National Forest have shown the carrying capacity for deer to be comparatively low. Early in this decade it became evident that the deer range of that area was over-populated—that the available • browse was suffering depletion—and that forest plantations were being damaged (Fig. 11). Every deer taken by hunters in that forest reserve in December 1945 was examined critically. While most of the animals, were .in. fairly good condition, almost none of them were fat as compared with deer harvested in good range. The carrying capacity of most deer ranges in Nebraska cannot be considered high.

The basic aim of management is to keep the numbers of deer within the biological limits of their range—to the benefit of the animals, the range, and the people.

The needles of conifers become an important item in the winter diet when some of the other foods are unavailable. It should not be inferred that they are unimportant at other times. Under the favorable winter conditions mentioned above, when a wide variety of plants was available, deer browsed on needles of Austrian pine. Branches of juniper and jack pine pruned from trees along trails during the summer appeared to be eagerly sought by deer. Clippings from juniper hedges in late summer used to "hay" the sandy trails were visited and fed on by deer for several days while the clippings were still succulent.

Analyses of the contents of 53 deer stomachs collected in the Nebraska National Forest during the 1945 deer hunt (December 1-21, inclusive) provided the information given in the following table:

Percentage Percentage Food Plant of total of stomachs in volume which found Euckbrush 28.2 82 Jack pine 18.3 73 Miscellaneous hardwoods 13.3 83.3% 64 Sunflower 13.3 79 Rose 10.2 73 Misc. forbs (non-grassy herbs) 5.6 56 Wild grape 3.0 2 Grass and sedge 1.4 60 Soapweed (Yucca) 1.1 53 Cedar (Juniper) 1.0 19 Scotch pine 0.9 2 New Jersey tea (Redroot) 0.8 17 Ponderosa pine 0.8 9 Choke-cherry 0.7 4 Poison ivy 0.5 39 Fungi 0.5 15 Prickly pear 0.2 15 Sandcherry 0.2 2

Browse studies by Wampole in the same area have shown these additional plants being utilized by deer: Austrian pine, willow, Cottonwood, hackberry, ash, wild plum, black locust, lead plant or prairie shoestring, and ragweed.

If you are a HUNTER, PLEASE have the courtesy to remember that when you go out in the country you are actually the guest of the Farmer. Therefore ask his permission to hunt on his land, be a true sportsman while on his land and remember a genial hand clasp and a candy bar for the kids will mean a welcome another time.   Outdoor Nebraska 19

20 Outdoor Nebraska

Nebraska Ducks and Geese

The birds illustrated on the following pages may be found in Nebraska during the spring and fall Migration periods, and many of them are wintering and breeding in Nebraska in increasing numbers.

The unusual pen and ink drawings here reproduced are placed on single pages for your convenience. The Commission hopes that teachers, students, and wild life clubs will find them suitable for wall display in class rooms and club rooms.

These originals were drawn by the Game Commission artist, Claremont Pritchard; and individual descriptions of the birds were written by Lloyd Vance and David Damon.

  Outdoor Nebraska 21     Outdoor Nebraska 25     Outdoor Nebraska 25     Outdoor Nebraska 29     Outdoor Nebraska 31     Outdoor Nebraska 33     Outdoor Nebraska 35     Outdoor Nebraska 37 Plate One

1. COMMON CANADA GOOSE—Sometimes called "honker", "Canadian goose", "Canadian", or "wild goose." It is the largest of the wild geese attaining a weight of 8 to 13 pounds and a length of 35 to 43 inches. For a bird of such large size, it is extremely fast—attaining a speed of 40 to 60 miles an hour. Canada geese formerly nested in Nebraska. The black neck and white throat patch make the Canada group easy to identify. Their food consists of grains, grasses, small green plants and small quantities of animal matter.

2. LESSER CANADA GOOSE—Is similar to the Common Canada except for size. Other names used are same as those referred to its larger brother, the Common Canada. This goose attains a weight of five to seven pounds and a length of 25 to 34 inches. As a rule, the Lesser Canada is browner in color than the Common Canada. The call of this goose is higher pitched than that of the Common Canada which helps to separate the two species in the air.

3. HUTCHINS' GOOSE—Is marked exactly like the Canada goose and is approximately the size of a large mallard. These geese weigh three to four pounds and have a body length of 23 to 25 inches. Flight speed is about the same as the larger geese, having been clocked at 40 to 50 miles per hour. Sometimes they are called "Richardson's goose", "hutch", "brant", or "cackling goose." Most of the Hutchins' geese migrate southward in the eastern portion of Nebraska. The Hutchins' may be readily separated from the Common and Lesser Canadas by its short bill, small size, and much higher pitched call.

Plate Two

1. BLUE GOOSE—Other names for this bird are "blue wavey," "whitehead," "whiteheaded goose," or "brant goose." It attains a weight of four to six pounds and a length of 28 to 30 inches. The flight speed is 40 to 55 miles per hour. In adult plumage, the goose is readily recognized by a white head and neck—often stained rusty—contrasting with blue-gray back and sides. This species sometimes hybridizes with the snow goose, producing birds that have some characteristics of both species. Its nesting grounds were first discovered in 1929 on Baffin island and later on Southampton island, both north of the Hudson bay.

2. LESSER SNOW GOOSE—This goose is all white with the exception of its black wing tips. It is sometimes called the "white goose," "common wavey," or "white wavey." According to one writer, the name "wavey" comes from the habit of these geese to fly in irregular, waving lines; another authority says it comes from the Indian word "wa-wa", meaning wild goose. In migration, snow and blue geese often intermingle. Lesser snow geese weigh three to six pounds and measure 25 to 28 inches in length. Like the blue goose, the snow gooose feeds largely on grains and grasses.

3. WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE—This goose has more common names than most species. To many Nebraskans it is known as the "speck." Other names are "specklebelly," "speckled goose," "spotted goose," or "gray wavey." About the size and weight of a blue goose, this species has brownish-gray plumage, lighter on the under parts where it is heavily blocked with black. The feathers at the base of the bill are white, hence the name "white-fronted." This species is often seen with other geese. However, they are wary and are found in flocks at the edge of concentrations of other species, seldom mingling with them. Food consists of grasses, grains, seeds, and a small percentage of insects and other animal matter.

  38 Outdoor Nebraska Plate Three SURFACE FEEDING DUCKS

1. COMMON MALLARD. This is the duck most familiar to Nebraska hunters. It is frequently called "greenhead." It is among the heaviest of wild ducks weighing from 2lh to ZV2 pounds and attaining a length of 22 to 24 inches. Males in adult plumage have a rich green head separated from the maroon breast by a distinct white band. The upper parts and sides are gray and finely marked. The speculum (brightly colored area on secondary wing feathers) is metallic blue edged with white on both sides; bill is yellow to olive green; feet are orange to reddish-orange. Females are brown mottled with tan and buff; the speculum and feet are colored as in the males. The voice of the female is a loud "quack," whereas her mate's call is almost a whispered "ack."

2. BLACK DUCK: Not so familiar to Nebraskans is this species which is the heaviest of all surface feeding ducks occuring in the state attaining a weight up to four pounds. The range of this duck lies east of Nebraska, but occasionally, specimens are shot in the eastern half of the state. Males are dark, dusky brown in general body plumage and having a light gray to pinkish-buff head which is finely speckled with black . The speculum is bluish-purple bordered in front and behind with black bars. The bill is yellow to olive and the feet coral-red to brownish-red. Females are similar to males, except that the feathers of the sides and chest show a distinct V-shaped central buffy marking.

3. GADWALL: To some hunters this is the "gray duck" or "gray widgeon." It weighs only about half as much as the black duck, ranging from 1V2 to 2 pounds. Liike the mallard, it is a common migrant as well as a nester in Nebraska. The male is the dullest-colored of our surface-feeders, the general body pumage being gray and grayish-brown heavily mottled, while the sides are finely penciled with white.

The shoulders of the wing are reddish-brown and the speculum is composed of half black feathers and half white feathers, the latter being nearest the body.

4. PINTAIL: This duck is named for its peculiar tail, the two middle feathers of which are much longer than the others. These spike-like feathers {less pronounced in the female), are the basis for the name "spike" which is common among hunters. Others call it "sprig." It weighs from 1 to 2% pounds. The male has a dark grayish-brown head glossed with lavender and green iridescence darker on the crown and running down the back of the neck. The breast and under parts are white, this color running well up and forming a stripe on the sides of the head. The sides and back of body are gray heavily barred with black. The speculum is iridescent green or bronze, outer edge white, inner edge cinnamon. The female's entire plumage is mottled brown, gray, and buff, darkest on the back shading to light gray or light mottled tan on the under parts. The head is brown or sandy.

Plate Four

As a rule adult male waterfowl moult their bright distinctive plumage during the summer and take on a drab appearance more nearly like the female. This is called the eclipse plumage. Some males retain all or part of the eclipse plumage into fall and such specimens are especially confusing to the hunter.

5. SHOVELLER—This species is probably more commonly known as the   Outdoor Nebraska 39 "spoonbill," "shovelbill," or "broadbill," and in either sex it is readily identified in the hunters bag by the very broad bill. It is not a heavy duck—weighing only one to one and three-quarters pounds.

The male in breeding plumage (5A) is very striking. The head is green, the breast white, and the sides and under parts a reddish-brown. On the wings the green speculum is separated from the blue shoulder by a white band.

In eclipse plumage (5C) the male looks somewhat like his mate except that the breast is a tawny reddish-brown and the wings remain as in the breeding plumage. The feet retain their orange color, but the bill changes from brown to dull orange.

The female's plumage (5B) is a light tan, mottled with dark brown. The wings are the general color of the male's, but much duller.

The shoveller is a duck of the marshlands, small ponds, and sloughs where it feeds on just about any plant or animal matter its big bill scoops up.

6. GREEN-WINGED TEAL—This, the smallest of our ducks (10 to 14 ounces) is sometimes referred to simply as "green-wing."

In breeding plumage (6C) the male has a rusty-red head with a green patch on the sides running from the eye to the nape of the neck. Longer feathers on the back of the neck suggest a small crest. The breast is pinkish-tan marked with small round black dots, the belly white and the sides and back gray, finely barred with black.

In eclipse plumage (6A) he has a drab appearance. Both the head and body is a mottled gray mixed with brown, but by fall the brownish feathers of the head appear.

The female (6B) has her entire body mottled with brown, gray and tan. Her wing colors are similar to those of the male.

Greenwings are often associated with other surface-feeding ducks on small ponds, puddles and creeks. While this species prefers vegetable food, it does eat a large amount of water insects and other small animals.

7. BLUE-WINGED TEAL—This little duck tends to shun chill weather, the majority arriving in the spring after other ducks are heading south at the time of the first frosts. Its weight ranges from 10 ounces to one pound.

The male when in breeding plumage (7A) is one of the best dressed of our ducks. His head and neck is gray with a slight lavender and greenish iridesence; a conspicuous white crescent-shaped patch between the eye and bill.

The general body plumage is a rich reddish-tan heavily speckled with black. The blue on the wings is conspicuous in flight in both sexes and in any plumage.

The eclipse plumage (7C) is almost identical to the female except that the wing retains its brighter colors. By late October the eclipse plumage has begun to moult out and there is then a faint indication of the white crescent on the head.

The female's plumage (7B) is a mottled brownish-buff to buff-gray mixed with darker brown. The head is speckled and streaked with brown. The blue shoulder patches and green speculum are duller than in the male.

This is truly a puddle duck, commonly seen on the smallest and most temporary pools, preferring shallow water where it feeds by swimming along with its bill partially submerged, gleaning seeds, water plants and small animals. In deeper water it tips up like other surface-feeders.

8. CINNAMON TEAL—This is a close relative of the blue-winged teal—in fact, its blue wing is identical, to the above speciies in all respects. However, the minnamon teal averages a little heavier than the other teal, weighing 3/4 to 1 1/4 pounds.

  40 Outdoor Nebraska

Most easily identified is the male (8B) in breeding plumage. His head, neck, and body are as his name indicates, a rich cinnamon-red, darkest on the crown and back. In eclipse plumage he could be easily mistaken for a bluewing. The cinnamon teal is a duck of western United States occuring in small numbers in western Nebraska and is only rarely found in eastern Nebraska and Iowa. Since the plumage of the female cinnamon teal (8A) is almost exactly like the female bluewing, separation of species is impractical unless one has the specimens in hand. The bill of the bluewing is smaller than that of the female cinnamon, and is the same width thruout; while in the latter, the bill is slightly constricted towards the base. The rather tame cinnamon teal inhabits the tule bordered shallow lakes and marshes of their western range, seldom occurring in large flocks. About four-fifths of its food is vegetable matter.

Plate Five

9. WOOD DUCK—This species, sometimes called "woody," "summer duck," or "squealer" is the most beautiful of all of the American waterfowl. This medium-sized duck, uncommon in Nebraska, weighs from one to one and three-quarters pounds and attains a flight speed of 30 to 50 miles an hour. Because of its scarcity there is a continued closed season on this duck in Nebraska.

The adult male (A) has a beautiful crested head with iridescent green, purple, and blue feathers with white lines running lengthwise on the crest. There are distinct vertical white marks on the sides of both the head and the neck.

In the fall plumage the male (C) is rather drab colored, resembling the female except that the bill retains the bright colors, and the white marks remain on the head.

The female (B) is the only female duck that shows iridescent plumage on its body.

The wood duck generally nests in cavities of trees near the water; however, they may select a site some distance away. For the past several years a pair of wood ducks have been nesting high in a tree cavity located in the front yard of conservation officer, Mike Burney's residence at Neligh.

10. BALDPATE—This species gets its name from the creamy white top of its head presenting a bald appearance when in spring plumage (A). To some hunters he is known as the "widgeon." He is of medium size weighing from one and one-half to two and one-half pounds.

In addition to the conspicuous white on top of the head, the male (A) in spring has a green iridescent patch extending from the eye to the nape of the neck. The breast, sides and back are grayish-brown with a pink cast to them. Fine black bars are found on the back and sides. In flight, this surface feeding duck shows a gray or white patch ahead of the speculum. The latter is dark with a greenish iridescence.

The fall or eclipse plumage (C) closely resembles that of his mate.

The female (B) is a rather nondescript duck having a grayish-brown head and neck heavily speckled with black. The breast, sides and back are plain black, often with grayish cast.

The baldpate, in spite of its nervousness, decoys easily and because of its swift, erratic flight, is a favorite with many hunters. Its food is made up almost entirely of water plants.

11. WHITE-WINGED SCOOTER—This species (and those following) is a diving duck. The divers, so-called because they dive completely under water   Outdoor Nebraska 41 to feed, show but little plumage changes in the males.

The plumage of male white-winged scooter is black shading into brown on the sides. Under each eye is a white spot and the speculum is also white. The base of the bill is swollen and marked with red, white and black.

The female is brownish-black all over except for a white speculum and sometimes with two indistinct whitish spots in the region of the ear and at the base of the bill.

This species is uncommon in the state, being a winter duck of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts where it is commonly called a "sea coot." It feeds largely on shellfish which it obtains by diving into great depths. Aquatic insects, crayfish, snails, and occasionally water plants are included in the diet.

12. OLD-SQUAW—This oddly named duck is another uncommon winter visitor in Nebraska. Eastern Nebraskans are more likely to see this duck than those living in the central or western parts of the state.

The male has a white head with cream-colored crown, gray on the sides and a brown patch extending from the ear to the center of the neck. The back and wings are dark brown, this color also extending across the breast. The sides of the body are gray. The tail is long, spike-like, and brown.

The more, somber-colored female is small, chunky, and lacks the spike tail. Her head has a dark crown and a brown patch on each side as well as on the throat.

The old-squaw is found chiefly along the sea coasts and in great lakes, where it dives for mussels and other water animals. They have been caught in fishermen's nets at depths up to 180 feet.

Plate Six

13. The CANVAS-BACK, sometimes called "can," is a large duck weighing 2 to 3 1/2 pounds. The flight of these divers (60 to 75 miles per hour) during the fall months is usually associated with cold weather, as they will remain as far north as long as possible until ice drives them from their favorite lakes. The long, sloping profile of the "can" will identify it from other ducks. At a distance, it may be confused with the redhead or scaup because of similar back coloration. The canvas-back is an excellent diver, obtaining food from the bottom of lakes and ponds. They have some difficulty leaving the water, and usually paddle some yards before taking full flight. Pass shooting of this speedy flier is one of the greatest sports of waterfowling.

14. The REDHEAD is a medium to large-size diver, weighing 2 to 3 pounds, and may be readily separated from the canvas-back by its high forehead, as compared to the long, sloping profile of its similarly-colored cousin. While redheads are rapid fliers, they ordinarily fly at 40 to 55 miles per hour but with the wind they greatly exceed this speed. The main fall migration of these ducks usually occurs between the middle of October and the forepart of November, but many will stay as long as there is open water. The redhead and canvas-back are both vegetable feeders which gives the flesh a fine flavor.

15. The BUFFLE-HEAD, known also as "dipper," "butterball," or "butter duck," is only 12 to 15 inches in length and weighs from 1/2 to 1 1/2 pounds. This little black and white duck with a large puffy head (beautifully colored with irridescent blue, green, and purple, and with a large wedge-shaped patch) is at once the smallest and most beautiful of the diving ducks. On the larger lakes in western Nebraska, the buffle-head is quite common-—riding the roughest waves on the deepest water. They often hit the water at full speed (40 to 60 miles an hour) coming to a sliding halt or bouncing for several yards before

  Outdoor Nebraska 43 Plate Eight

The MERGANSERS or FISH DUCKS (20) (21) (22) are to be distinguished from other ducks by having the bill rounded instead of flattened and strongly toothed or serrated giving rise to their other cognomen of "sawbills". As their food consists chiefly of fish, their flesh is very rank, and to the average Nebraska sportsman almost uneatable.

(20) The AMERICAN MERGANSER in addition to the list of names given above is also known as "sheldrake" and "Kansas grayback." These puffy headed ducks with an iridescent green-black head and red bill with a black stripe down the center are 22 to 27 inches in length and 3 to 4 1/2 pounds in weight. The female has a well crested head which is reddish brown in color with a white throat patch distinctly separated from the general color of the head. The large size of these ducks, flying with head, neck, an dbody outstretched low to the water gives the impression of slow flight, yet in reality they are fast fliers. They are tough birds and hard to kill; if wounded, they dive and are almost impossible to retrieve. Many of these mergansers winter in Nebraska wherever open water is to be found.

(21) The HOODED MERGANSER, much smaller than either of the other two, 16 to 20 inches in length and 1 to 1 1/2 pounds in weight, may readily be recognized by the full crested heads and smaller size. The head of the male has a large fan-shaped white crest edged with black, while the female has a head full crested with brown. The bill is black in color, while the feet are dusky brown. These birds are also known as "little sheldrake," "hairy head," and "little sawbill." They are no longer common in Nebraska.

(22) The RED-BREASTED MERGANSER is more nearly the size of the American Merganser having a length of 22 to 25 inches and weighing 2 to 2 1/z pounds. Because it prefers salt water, this bird is rarely seen here although a few are observed each year. The head of this duck is only slightly iridescent greenish black on the male with a distinct crest; the breast is reddish-tan spotted with black as contrasted to the rich creamy white breast of the american merganser. The female has a light rusty-brown colored head with a large long and conspicuous crest. The throat patch on the female has no distinct line of separation between it and the color of the head and neck.

(23) The RUDDY DUCK is a chunky bird with a short heavy neck, short upturned bill and a short rounded tail with narrow stiff feathers. This little duck, only 12 to 16 inches in length and weighing 1 to 1 1/2 pounds, is sometimes called "bullneck," "spirit duck," "bluebill," "butterball," "stifftail," "broadbill," or "bumblebee coot." Large numbers of these duck nest in some of the sandhill lakes particularly south and east of Alliance in Box Butte and Morrill counties. Being excellent divers, they will commonly try to escape their enemies by diving rather than by flying. They rise from the water with some difficulty and usually fly at a low altitude; often they plunge headlong into the water when they alight.

Outdoor Nebraska 45

NEBRASKA 1949 HUNTING LAWS AND REGULATIONS

BIRDS DUCKS. GEESE, BRANTS, AND COOTS (MUDHENS)

OPEN SEASON, October 21 to December 4, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Entire State except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges, and Willow Lake in Cherry County.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, From (V2) one-half hour before sunrise to (1) one hour before sunset, except that the hour for the commencement of hunting of waterfowl and coot on the first day of the season shall be 12 o'clock noon.

USE OF LIVE DECOYS OR BAIT, prohibited.

USE OF CATTLE, HORSES, OR MULES, prohibited.

DAILY BAG, DUCKS, 4, but no wood ducks may be taken. American and Red-Breasted Mergansers—25 singly or in the aggregate.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME AFTER OPENING DAY, Ducks, not more than 8 ducks. No wood ducks may be included. American and Red-Breasted Mergansers—No limit.

DAILY BAG AND POSSESSION, Geese and Brants, 5, including in such limit either 2 Canada geese (including Hutchins or cackling geese) or 2 white-fronted geese, or (1) one of each.

DAILY BAG AND POSSESSION, Coots, 10, and any person may possess not more than 10.

QUAIL

OPEN SEASON, November 24 to November 28, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Otoe, Johnson, Nemaha, Pawnee, Richardson, and Gage Counties, except for Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges in these areas. All other counties closed,

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, Sunrise to sunset.

DAILY BAG AND POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, 5.

COCK PHEASANTS

OPEN SEASON, October 21 to October 30, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Adams, Antelope, Boone, Buffalo, Burt, Butler, Cass, Cedar, Chase, Clay, Colfax, Cuming, Custer, Dakota, Dawson, Dixon, Dodge, Douglas, Dundy, Fillmore, Franklin, Frontier, Furnas, Gage, Garfield, Gosper, Greeley, Hall, Hamilton, Harlan, Hayes, Hitchcock, Howard, Jefferson, Johnson, Kearney, Knox, Lancaster, Lincoln, Logan, Madison, Merrick, Nance, Nemaha, Nuckolls, Otoe, Pawnee, Perkins, Phelps, Pierce, Platte, Polk, Red Willow, Richardson, Saline, Sarpy, Saunders, Seward, Sherman, Stanton, Thayer, Thurston, Valley, Washington, Wayne, Webster, Wheeler, and York Counties except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuge areas. All other counties clos©cL

HOUPS OPEN EACH DAY, 11:00 A.M. until (1) one hour before sunset

DAILY BAG, 2 cocks.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, 2 cocks.

  46 Outdoor Nebraska

IDENTIFICATION, All pheasants taken must have sex identification. Either head, tail feathers or feet must be left on the bird.

HEN PHEASANTS

NO OPEN SEASON.

DOVES

OPEN SEASON, September 10 to October 1, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Entire State except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges, and Willow Lake in Cherry County.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, (1/2) one-half hour before sunrise, to sunset.

DAILY BAG, 10.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, 10.

CLOSED SEASON

The following game birds are protected by closed season: All Swans, Cranes, Snipe (Wilson or Jack), Curlew, Rails, Gallinules, Prairie Chicken, Grouse, Partridges (Chukar and Hungarian), Wild Turkey, Plover, and Hen Pheasants.

ANIMALS RABBITS (Cottontails)

OPEN SEASON, October 1 to January 31, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Entire State except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges, and Willow Lake in Cherry County.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, Sunrise to sunset.

DAILY BAG, 5.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, 5.

JACKS, No closed season. No limit.

SQUIRRELS

OPEN SEASON, October 1 to December 31, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Entire State except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges, and Willow Lake in Cherry County.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, Sunrise to sunset.

DAILY BAG, 5.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, 5.

RACCOON AND OPOSSUM

OPEN SEASON, October 1 to March 1, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Entire State except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges, and Willow Lake in Cherry County.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, All hours.

DAILY BAG, No limit.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, No limit.

ANTELOPE

NO OPEN SEASON.

DEER

OPEN SEASON. Special season for 1500 permittees. Application for permits closed August 15, 1949.

Outdoor Nebraska 47

NEBRASKA 1949-1950 TRAPPING LAWS AND REGULATIONS

MUSKRAT AND MINK

OPEN SEASON, Area 1, November 15 to March 1, inclusive.

AREA 1 INCLUDES: Arthur, Banner, Blaine, Box Butte, Boyd, Brown, Cherry, Dawes, Garden, Garfield, Grant, Holt, Hooker, Keya Paha, Logan, Loup, McPherson, Morrill, Rock, Scotts Bluff, Sheridan, Sioux Thomas and Wheeler Counties except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges and State-owned lakes.

OPEN SEASON, Area 2, November 15 to January 15, inclusive.

AREA 2 INCLUDES: Adams, Antelope, Boone, Buffalo, Burt, Butler, Cass, Cedar, Chase, Cheyenne, Clay, Colfax, Cuming, Custer, Dakota, Dawson, Deuel, Dixon, Dodge, Douglas, Dundy, Fillmore, Franklin, Frontier, Furnas, Gage, Gosper, Greeley, Hall, Hamilton, Harlan, Hayes, Hitchcock, Howard, Jefferson, Johnson, Kearney, Keith, Kimball, Knox, Lancaster, Lincoln, Madison, Merrick, Nance, Nemaha, . Nuckolls, Otoe, Pawnee, Perkins, Phelps, Pierce, Platte, Polk, Red Willow, Richardson, Saline, Sarpy, Saunders, Seward, Sherman, Stanton, Thayer, Thurston, Valley, Washington, Wayne, Webster and York Counties except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges and State-owned lakes.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, All hours.

DAILY BAG, No limit.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, No limit.

RACCOON AND OPOSSUM

OPEN SEASON, October 1 to March 1, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Entire State except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges and State-owned lakes.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, All hours.

DAILY BAG, No limit.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, No limit.

BADGER, SKUNK AND CIVET *

OPEN SEASON, November 15 to January 15, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Entire State except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges and State-owned lakes.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, All hours.

DAILY BAG, No limit.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, No limit.

FOX

OPEN SEASON, January 1 to December 31, inclusive.

AREA OPEN, Entire State except Federal and State Sanctuaries and Refuges and State-owned lakes.

HOURS OPEN EACH DAY, All hours.

DAILY BAG, No limit.

POSSESSION AT ANY TIME, No limit.

COYOTE

NO CLOSED SEASON. No limit.

BEAVER

NO OPEN SEASON.

Reminder TWO REASONABLE GIFTS That Will Bring Year Around Pleasure To Your Outdoor Friends A "HUNTING AND FISHING PERMIT" or A Subscription to "OUTDOOR NEBRASKA' or Why Not Give Both?